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PRODUCTIVE 

HORSE 
HUSBANDRY 

BY CARL W GAY 



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" The first farmer was the first man, and all historic 
nobility rests on possession and use of land." 

— Emerson. 



LIPPINCOTT'S 

FARM MANUALS 

EDITED BY 

KARY C. DAVIS, Ph.D. (Cornell) 

PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE, SCHOOL OF COUNTRY LIFE, 
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PRODUCTIVE 
HORSE HUSBANDRY 

By CARL W. GAY, D.V.M., B.S.A. 

PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY, SCHOOL OF VETERINARY MEDICINE, UNIVERSITY OF 

PENNSYLVANIA; DIRECTOR OF HORSE BREEDING, STATE LIVESTOCK 

SANITARY BOARD, COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA. 



L1PPINCOTTS 

FARM MANUALS 

Edited by K. C. DAVIS, Ph.D. 



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PRODUCTIVE HORSE HUSBANDRY 
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PRODUCTIVE ORCHARDING 

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Lippincott , s Farm Manuals 

EDITED BY K. C. DAVIS, Ph.D. (Cornell). 



PRODUCTIVE 
HORSE HUSBANDRY 



BY 

CARL W. GAY, D.V.M., B.S.A. 

PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. SCHOOL OF VETERINARY MEDICINE, UNIVERSITY O? 

PENNSYLVANIA; DIRECTOR OF HORSE BREEDING, STATE LIVESTOCK 

SANITARY BOARD, COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA. 



175 ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT 

SECOND EDITION, REVISED 



" If vain our toil. 
We ought to blame the culture, not the soil." 

Pope — Essay on Man. 




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PREFACE 

It has been the author's purpose to emphasize industry as 
applied to horses. If the production, marketing, and use of 
horses were regarded as an industry and conducted more gen- 
erally along business lines, with a definite purpose in view, more 
uniform results could be obtained and with greater profit to 
those engaged. 

It is quite generally conceded that the investigations of the 
experiment stations, as well as the instruction in the schools and 
colleges, have been more exhaustive in their application to cattle, 
hogs, sheep, and poultry than to horses. This is unrepresenta- 
tive of the importance of the horse industry and inadequate to 
its needs. The aimless, hit or miss, haphazard system prevails 
in the production of horses more than in any other class of live 
stock ; the scrub stallion is less in disrepute than the scrub bull, 
and most producers of market cattle, hogs, or sheep devote them- 
selves more intelligently to their enterprise than do the breeders 
of horses. 

Commonly the original producer receives a lower percentage 
of the price which a horse ultimately brings than is the case with 
most market products. Indifference to market demands and lack 
of information concerning the best means of meeting the require- 
ments are largely responsible for the advantage of the middle- 
man. In fact, they constitute the principal asset of a certain 
class of dealers who derive their profits in direct proportion to 
the ignorance of those from whom they buy and to whom they 
sell. 

Notwithstanding the keen competition between the horse and 
the motor in some fields, the horse business in general is on a 
sound basis and bids fair to continue so, as far as can be fore- 
seen. But to successfully compete requires most careful atten- 
tion to detail. Economic efficiency is the standard by which com- 
parisons are made. Science and system must govern in the 
profitable production of market horses and their subsequent 
service. 



vi PREFACE 

Economy and efficiency have, therefore, ruled in the prep- 
aration of this subject-matter. The scope of the work outlined 
is too broad to admit of an extended discussion of all points 
referred to. Duplication of other texts has been avoided, as far 
as possible, while those phases of the subject that have received 
the least mention prior to this time have been most fully 
developed. 

This book is intended to present to students of live stock 
husbandry the same systematic and complete study of the horse 
that has been accorded the other classes of live stock. Works 
on the horse are legion, and many of them excellent, but the 
majority of writers view the proposition from an angle which 
does not comprehend the student's requirements so fully as is 
attempted here. 

The author duly acknowledges much valuable information 
gleaned from the current literature on the subject, while he claims 
no authority but assumes entire responsibility for the accuracy 
of much that is said. He deeply appreciates the counsel and 
assistance of a wide acquaintance of practical horsemen in 
acquiring the fund of horse lore from which the material, here- 
with presented, is drawn. 

Sectionalism and partiality to special classes or breeds have 
been avoided. Emphasis has been laid upon the practical side 
of horse husbandly. Students as well as horse breeders have 
been kept in mind while preparing this book. It is hoped that 
short-course students and college students will alike be able to 
use the text to advantage. The grouping of the chapters into 
four parts should aid in rapid reference and student work. 

Carl W. Gay. 
University of Penna., 
Nov., 1913. 



CONTENTS 



PART I.— STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. The Horse — A Machine 3 

II. Conformation — The Structure 10 

III. Way of Going — The Function 17 

PART II.— TYPES AND BREEDS. 

IV. The Types of Horses 35 

V. The Classes of Horses 45 

VI. The Breeds of Horses 70 

VII. Draft Breeds 84 

VIII. The Heavy Harness Breeds 101 

IX. American Breeds 112 

X. Pony Breeds 133 

XI. Judging Horses 139 

PART III.— THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 
XII. The Breeding of Horses 179 

PART IV.— THE HORSE IN SERVICE. 

XIII. Relation Between Horse and Master 219 

XIV. The Feeding of Horses 231 

XV. Stables 247 

XVI. Equitation 269 

XVII. Vehicle, Harness, and Saddle 286 

XVIII. Markets and Shows 296 

XIX. Transportation 304 

XX. The Mule 309 

XXI. The Motor as a Factor 314 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG. PAGE 

Productive Horse Husbandry Frontispiece 

1. Hind Legs, Propeller; Forelegs, Supportive to the Extent of Lifting 

the Forehand. (Exterior of the Horse) 3 

2. Skeleton of the Horse, Showing the Vertebral Arch and the Bone 

Columns. (Adams' Horseshoeing) 4 

3. Each and Every Phase of the Stride is Demonstrated 5 

4. Situation of the Centre of Gravity in the Horse. (Exterior of the 

Horse) 6 

5. Diagram Showing Contact of Feet in Various Gaits 7 

6. During the Greatest Effort the Base of Support is Rectangular, the 

Horse Being Practically on All Fours. (Exterior of the Horse) . . 8 

7. Regions of the Horse Seen in Profile. (Exterior of the Horse) 11 

8. Normal Eye. (Exterior of the Horse) 12 

9. Plantar Surface of Right Fore-Hoof. (Adams' Horseshoeing) 13 

10. The Erect Standing Position of the Foreleg, Viewed from in Front, 

as Determined by the Plumb-line. (Exterior of the Horse) 14 

11. The Correct Standing Position of the Foreleg, Viewed from the Side. 

(Schweiter) 14 

12. The Correct Standing Position of the Hind Leg, Viewed from the 

Reai*. (Exterior of the Horse) 15 

13. The Correct Standing Position of the Hind Leg, Viewed from the 

Side. (Exterior of the Horse) 15 

14. The Fast Trot, Characterized as a Diagonal Gait of Extreme Exten- 

sion and Rapidity of Stride 18 

15. The High Stepping Trot, Showing Extreme Flexion of Knees and 

Hocks. (Champion Hackney Pony Berkley Bantam) 19 

16. The Pace, a Lateral Gait of Extreme Extension and Rapidity of 

Stride 20 

17. The Different Phases and Contacts in the Gallops. (Exterior of the 

Horse) 21 

18. The Different Phases and Contacts in the Jump. (Exterior of the 

Horse) 22 

19. Position of Direction of Leg to Course Taken by Foot in the Stride. 

(Adams' Horseshoeing) 24 

20. Knee-sprung or Over on the Knees. (Exterior of the Horse) 25 

21. Calf-kneed. (Exterior of the Horse) 25 

22. Too Straight Pastern. (Adams' Horseshoeing) 25 

23. Base Narrow, Toe Wide, Nigger-heeled, or Splay-footed. (Exterior 

of the Horse) 26 

ix 



X ILLUSTRATIONS 

24. Toe Narrow or Pigeon-toed. (Exterior of the Horse) 26 

25. Knock-kneed. (Exterior of the Horse) 26 

26. Bow-kneed. (Exterior of the Horse) 27 

27. Too Close at Ground. (Exterior of the Horse) 27 

28. Too Wide at Ground. (Exterior of the Horse) 27 

29. Bent, Sabre, or Sickle Hock. (Adams' Horseshoeing) 28 

30. Cow-hocked. (Exterior of the Horse) 28 

31. Bandy-legged or Wide at the Hocks. (Exterior of the Horse) 28 

32. The Draft Type, Showing the Weight, the Low, Wide, Compact, 

Massive Form, the Bone and the Muscling which Characterize the 
Horse of Power. (Percheron Gelding, Champion International 
Live Stock Exposition) 36 

33. The Way a Draft Horse Should be Able to Move. (Carnot, Im- 

ported Percheron Stallion, Champion International Live Stock 
Exposition, Owned by W. S. Corsa, Whitehall, 111. Courtesy of 
the Owner) 38 

34. The Speed Type, Representing the Long, Rangy, Angular, Narrow 

but Deep Form Correlated with Length and Rapidity of Stride. 
(Champion Trotting Mare Lou Dillon, 1.58J/0 39 

35. The Show Type, Representing the Close and Full Made Form. 

(Champion Hackney Show Mare, Lady Seaton) 41 

36. A Weight Carrier, Illustrating the Bone Muscular Development 

which, with a Short Back and Legs, Render a Horse "up to" Two 
Hundred Pounds or More. (Prize Winning Heavy Weight Hunter, 
Solitaire) 42 

37. The Saddle Type, Showing the Short Top and Long Under Line, 

Sloping Shoulders, the High, Well-finished Withers, and the 
Long, Fine, Supple Neck Essential to the Saddle Horse. (Cham- 
pion Saddle Mare, Sonia) 43 

38. A Trey or Three-way Hitch of Drafters to Truck, Showing the 

Scale, Form, and Conformation of Horses of this Class, also the 
Manner of Hitching. (Prize Winning Percheron Geldings Owned 
by J. Crouch and Sons, Lafayette, Ind. Courtesy of the owners) . 50 

39. A Draft Pair of LTnusual Quality and Attractive Color 51 

40. A Six-horse Draft Team to Packer's Van, Showing the Relative 

Balance between the Lead, Swing, and Wheel-pair, also Complete 
Appointments. (Prize Winning Clydesdale Geldings) 51 

41. A Pair of Chunks to Truck, Showing the Extremely Drafty Form, 

Bone, and Ruggedness Typical to this Class. (Percheron Geldings 
Owned by H. S. Beaston, Philadelphia, Pa. Courtesy of the 

Owner) 52 

42. An Expresser for Light Delivery Service, Showing the Combination 
of Draft Horse Size and Substance with Coach Horse Form and 
Finish. (Prize Winning Light Delivery Gelding, Owned by 
Strawbridge and Clothier, Philadelphia. Courtesy of the Owners) 53 



ILLUSTRATIONS x i 

13. A Class of Coach Horses to Brougham and Victorias. (Han 

Class, Philadelphia Horse Show) 54 

44. A Park Mare to Sayler Wagon. (Champion Hackney Show Mare, 

The Whip) 55 

45. A Runabout Horse, with a Fair Degree of Both Pace and Action. 

(Champion Trottingbrcd Harness Horse, Newsboy) 55 

46. A Cob to Runabout, a Big, Little Horse of Extremely Compact and 

Rotund Form. (Champion Small Harness Horse, Young Moun- 
taineer) 56 

47. The Bent Hock-joint. (Exterior of the Horse) 57 

48. A Gentleman's Road Mare. (Champion Road Mare, Allie Nun).. . 58 

49. A Trotter to Sulky. (Champion Trotting Mare, Sweet Marie, 2.02, 

McDonald up) 58 

50. The Straight Hock-joint. (Exterior of the Horse) 59 

51. A Steeple Chaser, Showing the Speed and Saddle Form of the 

Running Race Horse. (Merryman, Virginia bred hunter. 
Courtesy of the National Stockman and Farmer, Pittsburg, Pa.) 60 

52. A Gaited Saddle Stallion. (Kentucky Choice, Owned by Mrs. 

Richard Tasker Lowndes, Danville, Ky. Courtesy of the Owner. 
Matt Cohen up) 61 

53. A Walk-trot-canter Horse. (Champion Walk-trot-canter Saddle 

Horse, Poetry of Motion) 62 

54. A Class of English Saddle Horses. (Saddle Class, International 

Horse Show, Olympia, London. Courtesy of the National Stock- 
man and Farmer, Pittsburg, Pa.) 63 

55. A Light-weight Hunter. (Prize Winning Hunter Mare, Sunday 

Morning) 63 

56. Heatherbloom, the World'sRecord High Jumper. (Record, 8 feet 

33^ inches. Dick Donnelly up) 64 

57. A Combination Horse. (Prize Winning Saddle Horse, Confidence, 

Owned by Dr. Oscar Seely, Philadelphia) 65 

58. The Fine Harness Horse of the South. (Kentucky Choice in Harness) 66 

59. A Harness Pony under 46 Inches in Height. (Prize Winning Shet- 

land Pony, Lysander, Owned by Chas. E. Bunn, Peoria, 111. 
Courtesy of the Owner) 67 

60. A Twelve-hand Ride and Drive Pony of Exceptional Merit. (Prize 

Winning Harness and Saddle Hackney Pony Mare, Helen Miller, 
Owned by Willisbrook Farm) 67 

61. A Pair of Twelve-hand Ponies Properly Turned Out. (Prize Win- 

ning Pair of Welsh Ponies, Ownedby Geo. A.Heyl, Washington, 111.) 68 

62. A Polo Mount, Fast, Game, Handy, Intelligent, and up to Weight. 

(Prize Winning Polo Mount, Redman) 68 

63. Arabian Stallion, Showing the General Refinement Characteristic of 

this Breed. (Naaman, Owned by Herman Hoopes, Philadelphia, 
Pa. Courtesy of the Owner) 74 



Xii ILLUSTRATIONS 

64. A Thoroughbred Stallion, the Sire of Race Horses. (Rocksand, 

Recently Sold by August Belmont to a Foreign Syndicate for 
$150,000) 78 

65. A Thoroughbred Stallion Suitable to Get Saddle Horses and Hunters. 

(Chilton) . 80 

66. A French Post Coach Used Early in the Nineteenth Century. (A 

Manual of Coaching) 86 

67. A Diligence Still in Use in Switzerland. (A Manual of Coaching) . . 87 

68. An Old-fashioned Percheron. (Stallion, Sultan, Imported by Wm. 

T. Walters, Baltimore, Md., 1882) • 88 

69. A Percheron Stallion. (Imported Imprecation; Champion Inter- 

national Live Stock Exposition, Owned by J. Crouch and Sons, 
Lafayette, Ind. Courtesy of the Owners) 89 

70. A Belgian Stallion of the Most Acceptable Stamp. (Prize Winning 

Imported, Xavier, Owned by J. Crouch and Sons, Lafayette, 
Ind. Courtesy of the Owners) 92 

71. A Clydesdale Stallion of Most Impressive Character. (Flisk Prince, 

Imported, Champion International Live Stock Exposition, Owned 

by Conyngham Brothers, Wilkes-Barre, Pa. Courtesy of Owners) 95 

72. A Shire Stallion of Most Approved Type. (Lockinge Hengist, 

Imported, Champion International Live Stock Exposition, 
Owned by Truman's Pioneer Stud Farm, Bushnell, 111. Courtesy 
of the Owners) 97 

73. A Suffolk Stallion of the Punch Form. (Rendlesham Sunshine, 

Imported Prize Winner, Owned by Conyngham Brothers, Wilkes- 
Barre, Pa. Courtesy of the Owners) 99 

74. A Hackney Stallion. (Oxford Champion, National Horse Show, 

Madison Square Garden, New York City. The Only American 
Bred Horse that ever Won this Honor. Owned by Wm. White, 
Frazer, Pa. Courtesy of the Owner) 103 

75. A French Coach Stallion of the More Refined Sort. (Decorateur, 

Imported, Champion International Live Stock Exposition, Owned 
by McLaughlin Brothers, Columbus, Ohio. Courtesy of the Owners) 104 

76. A French Coach Sire which has Produced High-Class Harness 

Horses with Remarkable Regularity. (Troarn, Prize Winner, 
Owned by Geo. D. King, Springboro, Pa. Courtesy of Owner) . . 105 

77. A German Coach Stallion 107 

78. The Lead Pair in this Road Four are Pure-bred Orloffs. (Owned 

and Shown by Judge W. H. Moore) 109 

79. Carmon, at the Head of the Government Stud of American Horses. 

(Courtesy of Geo. M. Rommel) 109 

80. Pair of Trotting-bred Heavy Harness Horses to George IV Phaeton. 

(Lord Brilliant and Lord Golden, Many Times Champions) 110 

81. A Standardbred Stallion, a Leading Sire of the Breed. (Bingen, 

Recently Deceased) 113 



ILLUSTRATIONS xiii 

82. Hambletonian 10, at 23 Years of Age 115 

83. Monument over Grave of Hambletonian 10, at Chester, N. Y. 

(Courtesy of Prof. Henry W. Vaughn, Ohio State University).. . . 116 

84. Green Mountain Maid in 1873 118 

85. Inscription on Monument of Green Mountain Maid at Stony Ford. 

(Courtesy of Prof. Henry W. Vaughn, Ohio State University) .... 118 

86. An "Ideal Representative " of the Standardbred. (Moquette, 2.10, 

Owned by W. H. Davis, Washington, Pa. Courtesy of the Owner) 119 

87. A 16-hand, 1200-pound Standard Performer. (Stallion Sisalson, 

Owned by Henry Palmer, Avondale, Pa. Courtesy of the Owner) 120 

88. Original Photo of Ethan Allen, made in 1859 124 

89. A Morgan Stallion. (Bobbie B.) 125 

90. General Gates, at the Head of the Government Morgan Stud 126 

91. An American Saddle Stallion. (Bourbon King One of the Leading 

Sires of Kentucky) 131 

92. The Old Coimtry Idea of Shetland Type is a Miniature Draft Horse. 

(Eirik and Silverton of Tamsey, Champion Shetland Stallions 

and the Highland Royal Shows) 134 

•93. A Shetland Stallion, American bred. (Grandee, Owned by Chas. 

E. Bunn, Peoria, 111. Courtesy of the Owner) 134 

94. A Welsh Pony Stallion, Showing the Size and Form Characteristic 

of the Breed. (Llwyn King, Owned by Geo. A. Heyl, Washington, 
111. Courtesy of the Owner) 136 

95. A Hackney Pony Stallion. (Horace, Jr., Imported Champion, Owned 

by Willisbrook Farm, Malvern, Pa. Courtesy of the Owners) . . . 137 

96. Dentition of the Horse, as a Whole. (Exterior of the Horse) 152 

97. Longitudinal and Median Section of a Permanent Inferior Pincer. 

(Exterior of the Horse) 153 

98. Birth: None of the Incisor Teeth has Penetrated the Gums. (Ex- 

terior of the Horse) .' 154 

99. One Year: Viewed in Front, All the Milk Incisors are Visible. 

(Exterior of the Horse) 155 

100. Two Years: Jaws Belonging to a Colt of a Lymphatic Race, Having 

been Fed Almost Entirely on Forage. (Exterior of the Horse) ... 156 

101. Three Years Past: Viewed in Front, the Four Permanent Pincers 

are Seen. (Exterior of the Horse) 157 

102. Rising Four Years: Viewed in Front, there are Seen in Each Jaw 

Four Permanent Incisors. (Exterior of the Horse) 158 

103. Four Years: Viewed in Front, All the Permanent Superior Teeth 

are in Contact with the Inferior. (Exterior of the Horse) 159 

104. Four Years Past: Viewed in Front, the Superior Permanent Inter- 

mediates are in Contact with the Inferior Intermediates, and on 
the Same Level as the Pincers. (Exterior of the Horse) 160 

105. Rising Five Years: The Four Milk Corners have Fallen Out and are 

Replaced by Those of the Second Dentition. (Exterior of the Horse) 161 



x j v ILLUSTRATIONS 

106. Five Years: The Mouth is Entirely Made. (Exterior of the Horse) 162 

107. Six Years : Viewed in Front, the Jaws Present Almost the Same Char- 

acters as at Five Years. (Exterior of the Horse) 163 

108. Seven Years: Viewed in Front, the Teeth Appear Whiter. (Exterior 

of the Horse) 164 

109. Eight Years: The Direction of the Incisors Notably Changed. (Ex- 

terior of the Horse) 165 

110. Nine Years: Nothing Special is to be Seen upon the Jaws in Front 

or in Profile. (Exterior of the Horse) 166 

111. Ten Years: When Viewed from Front, the Jaws Become Prominent. 

(Exterior of the Horse) 167 

112. Eleven Years: In Order to See the Teeth in Front, it is Necessary 

to Raise the Horse's Head. (Exterior of the Horse) 168 

113. Twelve Years: The Incidence of the Jaws is More Oblique Than 

at the Preceding Age. (Exterior of the Horse) 169 

114. Fifteen Years: Viewed in Front, the Inferior Teeth Appear Shorter 

than the Superior. (Exterior of the Horse) . . . .- 170 

115. Twenty-one Years: The Teeth have Become so Horizontal that, 

when Viewed in Front, it is Difficult to See their Anterior Face, 
Unless the Head of the Horse be Raised. (Exterior of the Horse) 171 

116. Thirty Years: The Characters of this Period are of Extreme Old 

Age. (Exterior of the Horse) 172 

117. This Horse has a Record of Twenty-three Years in the Delivery 

Service of a Large City Department Store. (Blue Roan Horse, 
Owned by Gimbel Brothers, Philadelphia. Courtesy of the 
Owners) 173 

118. This Horse has Served Eighteen Years in the City as an Ambulance 

Horse 174 

119. This Horse has been Rendered Unserviceable by the Same Work 

in One Year 174 

120. A Pedigree Registry Certificate. (Courtesy of Gurney C. Gue, Sec- 

retary, American Hackney Horse Society) 186 

120a. Reverse Side of Registry Certificate 187 

121. A Breeding Stud. (Irvington Stud Farm, Owned by W. D. Henry, 

Sewickley, Pa. Courtesy of the Owner) 193 

122a and 122b. A Successful Sire of the Right Type. (Carnot, Courtesy 

of W. S. Corsa, Whitehall, 111.) 195 

123. A Producer — Sweet, Refined, and Feminine. (Thoroughbred 

Brood Mare, Iuka. Courtesy of Jas. A. McCloskey) 199 

124. A Brood Mare of Proven Worth. (A Clydesdale, Pride of Drum- 

landrig, Owned by Conyngham Brothers, Wilkes-Barre, Pa. 
Courtesy of the Owners) 200 

125. The Line of Draft. (A Manual of Coaching) 224 

126. The Angle Formed by the Traces with the Hames Should be as 

Near a Right Angle as Possible. (A Manual of Coaching) 226 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



XV 



127. The Scapulohumeral and Elbow-joint. (A Manual of Coaching) .. . 226 

128. The Breast or Dutch Collar in Proper Position. (A .Manual of 

Coaching) 226 

129. The Model "Work Horse Stable, Showing the Main Alley-way and 

General Interior Arrangement . (Courtesy of J. and P. Baltz Brew- 
ing Company, Philadelphia, Pa) 256 

130. A Model Work Horse Stable. (Courtesy of J. and P. Baltz Brew- 

ing Company, Philadelphia, Pa.) 257 

131. A Model Work Horse Stable. (Courtesy of J. and P. Baltz Brewing 

Company, Philadelphia, Pa.) 257 

132. Plan and Specifications for a Small Work Horse Stable with Open 

Front Stalls. (Courtesy of The School of Veterinary Medicine of 
the University of Pennsylvania) 258 

133. Floor Plan and Specifications for a Convenient, Comfortable, and 

Sanitary City Stable. (Courtesy of The School of Veterinary 
Medicine of the University of Pennsylvania) 258 

134. A Vacuum Grooming Machine in Operation. (Courtesy of the J. 

and P. Baltz Brewing Company, Philadelphia, Pa.) 260 

135. An Untrimmed Hoof with an Excess of Horn at the Toe, which 

Breaks the Foot Axis Backward. (Adams' Horseshoeing) 263 

136. An Untrimmed Hoof with an Excess of Horn at the Heels, which 

Breaks the Foot Axis Forward. (Adams' Horseshoeing) 263 

137. Hoof Dressed and Foot Axis Straightened. (Adams' Horseshoeing) . 263 

138. Tongue Held Back to Show the Bars of the Mouth upon which 

the Bit Bears. (Exterior of the Horse) 272 

139. The Jointed Snaffle Bit, (A Manual of Coaching) 273 

140. The Four-ring Snaffle Bit. (A Manual of Coaching) 273 

141. Port of Curb Bit, (A Manual of Coaching) 274 

142. The Liverpool Bit, (A Manual of Coaching) 274 

143. The Elbow Bit. (A Manual of Coaching) 27.") 

144. The Buxton Bit. (A Manual of Coaching) 275 

145. The Pelham Bit. (Exterior of the Horse) 275 

146. The Side Check or Bearing Rein with Bridoon Bit, (A Manual of 

Coaching) 276 

147. The Pulley Bridoon Bearing Rein. (A Manual of Coaching) 277 

148. Adjustment of the Coupling Reins. (A Manual of Coaching) 278 

149. Reins Held in Left Hand 281 

150. The Take-back 282 

151. The Two-hand Grip 283 

152. Riding Reins in One-hand Grip 284 

153. Riding, Two-hand Grip 284 

154. The Evolution of the Wheel. (A Manual of Coaching) 287 

155. The Cylindrical Axle Arm. (A Manual of Coaching) 288 

156. The Tapered Axle Arm. (A Manual of Coaching) 288 

157. Tapered Axle Arm Pitched. (A Manual of Coaching) 288 



Xvi ILLUSTRATIONS 

158. An Unpitched Tapered Axle. (A Manual of Coaching) 288 

159. The Dished Arrangement of the Spokes in the Hub. (A Manual of 

Coaching) 289 

160. The Staggered Arrangement of the Spokes in the Hub. (A Manual 

of Coaching) 290 

161. One of the Cumbersome and Pretentious Early Coaches. (A Man- 

ual of Coaching) 290 

162. Strap Supports in Which the Body of the Vehicle was Slung. (A 

Manual of Coaching) 291 

163. A Class of English Harness Horses. (Harness Class at the Inter- 

national Horse Show, Olympia, London. Courtesy of the National 
Stockman and Farmer, Pittsburg, Pa.) 292 

164. Philadelphia Mounted Police. (Courtesy of Dr. D. B. Fitzpatrick, 

City Veterinarian of Philadelphia) 294 

165. The Style of Riding to which the Stock Saddle is Best Adapted. 294 

166. Express Horse Car Partitioned into Stalls. (Courtesy of Country 

Gentleman, Philadelphia, Pa.) 305 

167. Stock Car for Shipping Horses. (Standard Stock-Car Used by the 

Pennsylvania Railroad. Courtesy of Paul McKnight, Live Stock 
Traffic Agent) 306 

168. Just Off the Car from the West. (Courtesy of Paul Connelly) 307 

169. Representing the Kentucky Standard of Mule Excellence. (A 

Pair of Blue Ribbon Winners Through Kentucky Fan Circuit) ... 310 

170. A Rugged Pah of More Drafty Form and Ample Bone 311 

171. A Kentucky Jack of the Size, Substance, and Shape Desired for 

Mule Breeding 312 

172. The Right Stamp of Mares as Attested by Their Produce 313 

173. Park Horse to Victoria, Correctly Appointed. (Dr. Selwonk, Cham- 

pion Heavy Harness Horse) 316 

174. Motor Advantages Enjoyed by the Horse, (Courtesy of Mr. Frank 

B. Rutherford, Secretary Pennsylvania Society for the Prevention 
of Cruelty to Animals) 318 



PART I 

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 



PRODUCTIVE 
HORSE HUSBANDRY 



CHAPTER I 
THE HORSE— A MACHINE 

A horse's usefulness depends upon his power of locomotion. 
A clear conception of his simple mechanical features affords the 
best means of measuring his serviceability. 

As a mechanical structure the horse consists chiefly of an 
arch, represented by his vertebrae, supported upon four upright 



columns, his legs. 



The balance of this arch is largely determined 




Fig. 1. — Hind legs, propellers; forelegs, supportive to the extent of lifting the forehand. 

by the position of the appended head and neck at one end, and 
the tail at the other. In the standing position all four legs have 
a supporting function, although greater weight is borne by the 
forelegs. In locomotion the hind legs are propellers, the forelegs 
retaining their supportive function, the degree of which is in- 
creased to the extent of constituting a lift (Fig. 1). The pro- 

3 



STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 



pulsive effort of the hindquarters is met by the forehand in 
such a manner as to maintain the equilibrium as the body is 
advanced. 

Locomotion is accomplished by the supporting columns being 




Fig. 2. — Skeleton of the horse, showing the vertebral arch and the bone columns, one 
pair of legs supporting, the alternate pair, partially flexed, in a stride. 1, bones of the head; 
1', lower jaw; 2, cervical vertebra?; 3, dorsal vertebrae; 4, lumbar vertebrae; 5, sacral vertebrae 
(sacrum); 6, coccygeal vertebrae; 7, ribs; 8, sternum (breast-bone); 9, pelvis; 9', ilium; 9", 
ischium; 10, scapula (slioulder-blade) ; 11, humerus; 12, radius; 13, ulna; 14, carpus (knee); 
15, large metacarpal bone (canon); 16, rudimentary metacarpal bones (splint-bones); 
17, os suffraginis (long pastern); 18, os coronae (short pastern); 19, os pedis (hoof-bone); 
20, sesamoid bones; 21, femur; 22, patella (knee-pan, stifle); 23, tibia; 24. fibula; 25, tarsus, 
or hock; 26, large metatarsal bone (canon); 27, rudimentary metatarsals (splint bones); 
28, os suffraginis (long pastern); 29, os coronae (short pastern); 30, os pedis (hoof-bone, 
"coffin-bone"); 31, sesamoid bones. 

broken, and the foot elevated, by the flexion of the joints, into a 
position from which it is advanced by the subsequent extension of 
the joints. A single advance of one foot constitutes a stride, and 
a series of strides, which involve in turn the four feet, brings the 
entire structure to an advanced position (Fig. 2). Each alter- 



THE HORSE— A MACHINE 5 

nate pair of legs supports the weight while the other pair is 
executing a stride. The primary motive for the stride is fur- 
nished by the hindquarters, the propulsive action of which dis- 
places the centre of gravity forward, to such an extent as to 
necessitate locomotion in order to maintain or regain the equi- 
librium. There are five distinct phases of the stride: 

1. A preliminary, during which the leg is undergoing flexion, 
but the foot has not left the ground, at which point the real stride 
begins. 

2. The breaking over, in which the foot is raised heel first, 
finally leaving the ground by being rocked up and over at the 
toe. 




Fk 



-Each and every phase of the stride is demonstrated by some one of the ten foie 
and ten hind legs shown. 



3. Flight, during which the foot is describing a more or less 
regular arc of a perpendicular circle. 

4. Contact, at which point the foot is again brought to the 
ground. 

5. Recovery, as the weight gradually falls on the foot and 
the original position of the leg is momentarily established, pre- 
paratory to a repetition of the stride (Fig. 3). 

Mechanical Analogy. — In order to carry out the idea of a 
mechanical analogy, the digestive system of the horse may be 
regarded as the boiler whence the energy is supplied ; the mus- 
cular system as comprising the motors ; the power exerted by the 
muscle motors at the expense of the energy derived from the 
digestive boilers, operating the bone columns, by the alternate 



G STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 

flexion and extension of which locomotion is accomplished; the 

whole procedure being under the control of the nervous system. 

Muscular Action. — In accomplishing locomotion, the part 

played by the muscles is fundamental. The chief characteristic 

of muscular tissue is its contractility. Contraction takes place 
on receiving a stimulus through the voluntary nerve, which ter- 
minates between the two extremities of the muscle. One end of 



Fig. 4. — Situation of the centre of gravity in the horse. 

the muscle has a fixed insertion ; the other is attached to a mov- 
able bone lever. The two bones are apposed end to end, by means 
of a joint, the surfaces of which permit of motion of one or 
both bones, the degree or amount of motion depending upon the 
kind of articulation. When, therefore, the contracting muscle 
draws the movable bone to which it is attached toward the bone 
to which it has its fixed insertion, either flexion or extension of 
the joint takes place. 



THE HORSE— A MACHINE 7 

The centre of gravity in the horse, standing naturally, has 
been fixed at that point, in the median vertical plane of the body 
where a perpendicular line from the posterior extremity of the 
breast-bone intersects the line of division between the lower and 
middle thirds of the body divided horizontally (Fig. 4). The 
centre of gravity is stationary only when the horse is standing 





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r\ 






Q 







1 
1 


) 


\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 







d__._r 


> < 


/ 
/ 







Fig. 5. — Diagram showing contact of feet in various gaits. A, standing, rectangular 
base of support; B, walking, triangular base of support; C, trotting, linear base of support; 
D, running, point base of support. 

absolutely still. When moving, there is a constantly repeated 
displacement; ultimately in the direction taken by the leading 
foot, although prior to the commencement of the si ride, there is 
a momentary displacement in the opposite direction, as the 
weight is shifted to the supporting leg in order Id reduce the 



weight on the side of the foot to he advanced 



STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 



The stability of equilibrium is in direct proportion to the 
size and especially the width of the base of support. It is the 
measure of power. Power and speed are not correlated but oppo- 
site extremes. Instability of equilibrium is the measure of 
speed. In order, therefore, that the horse may take strides in 
rapid succession, the base of support must be so reduced as to 
permit of the ready displacement of the centre of gravity. It 
may then readily follow the direction of each stride in turn. 

Increase in the rapidity 
of the stride has the 
effect of reducing the 
size of the base of sup- 
port, so that the faster 
a horse goes the more 
favorable are the condi- 
tions for still greater 
speed. This is exempli- 
fied in the fact that the 
base <>f support is a rec- 
tangle in case of the 
horse at rest ( Fig. 5 ) . It- 
is reduced to the general 
form of a triangle as the 
horse leads out with one foot at the walk. It takes the form of a 
line as the horse extends himself at the trot or pace ; and finally 
it consists of a point only as but one foot is on the ground at the 
run. On the other hand, the horse at the run is not capable of 
any draft effort except that which comes from the momentum 
he has already attained ; he has a better chance at the trot ; can 
pull well at the walk, and he is capable of his greatest effort at 
the starting of the load, as he is practically standing on all fours 
(Fig. 6). 

REVIEW 

1. Of what does the horse's mechanical structure consist ? 

2. How is locomotion accomplished? 

3. What constitutes a stride and what are its phases'? 

4. Explain the part played by the muscles in locomotion. 

,5. Where is the centre of gravity in the horse standing naturally? 




Fig. 6. — During the greatest effort the base of 
support is rectangular, the horse being practically on 
all fours. 



THE HORSE— A MACHINE 9 

6. How does the centre of gravity conduct itself when the horse moves? 

7. What is the relation of the size of the base of support to the stability 

of the equilibrium ? 

8. "What are the changes in the size and shape of the base of support 

which may occur as the horse progresses from the standing posi- 
tion to the run? 

9. How does the stability of the equilibrium measure the power of which 

a horse is capable? 
10. How does the instability of the equilibrium measure the speed of 
which a horse is capable ? 



CHAPTER II 
CONFORMATION— THE STRUCTURE 

Conformation is the " putting together " of the parts which, 
collectively, compose the animal structure. Its study has refer- 
ence to the proportions, dimensions, external contour, and in- 
ternal construction of the parts and their relation in the general 
arrangement. Not only should the parts be well formed indi- 
vidually, but they must fit and blend with the other parts in order 
to make the whole structure symmetrical and sound. The 
strength of a chain is measured by the strength of its weakest 
link. In the same manner defection in one part of conformation 
may offset an otherwise perfect structure. Unlike a chain, how- 
ever, the parts or units of conformation in a horse are not iden- 
tical. Some are of greater relative importance than others, and 
interfere more with, serviceability in case they prove defective. 
A study of conformation consists in the detection of points of 
superiority and inferiority of structure, and in allotting to each 
their proper significance. 

For the purpose of studying conformation, the structure may 
be divided into regions and each region subdivided into its com- 
ponent parts, with specifications for each (Fig. 7). 

Head and Neck. — Head. — Size proportionate to size of 
horse; dimensions — length, breadth, and depth — proportionate 
to each other; face line straight ; features sharply defined ; lower 
jaw strong with open angle between branches so as not to com- 
press larynx when neck is flexed. 

Forehead. — Broad, full and flat. 

Ears. — Medium size, fine, pointed, set close, carried alert. 

Eyes. — Prominently set, large, full, clear, bright, lids thin, 
uniform curvature, no angle caused by atrophy (Fig. 8). 

Muzzle — Not too fine, nostrils large but not dilated, lips 
thin, trim, teeth regular, sound. 

Neck.-— Long, lean, crest marked, but not too heavy, throat' 
latch fine, head well set on. 
10 



CONFORMATION— THE STRUCTURE 



11 




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12 



STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 



Forehand.— Withers. — Well set up, extending well back, 
muscular but neither low nor heavy, free from scars. 

Shoulders. — Long, oblique, smooth. 

Arms. — Short, muscular, carried forward. 

Forearms. — Broad and muscular. 

Knees. — Size proportionate to the weight of the horse, 
straight, broad, deep, smooth, strongly supported. 

Canons. — Short, broad, fluted. Tendons, smooth, well set 
back. 

Fetlocks. — Wide, smooth, well supported. 




Fig. 8. — Normal eye. 



Pasterns. — Long, sloping but strong. 

Feet. — Size in proportion to the weight of the horse, uni- 
form ; form circular, walls straight, slope corresponding to slope 
of pastern ; height at toe, side wall, and heel as 3 to 2 to 1. Sole 
concave, bars strong, frog large, elastic, heels wide, full ; texture 
of horn dense, smooth, dark colored (Fig. 9). 

Legs. — Viewed from in front, a perpendicular line dropped 
from the point of the shoulder should divide the leg and foot into 
two lateral halves (Fig. 10). Viewed from the side, a perpen- 
dicular line dropped from the tuberosity on the scapula should 



CONFORMATION— THE STRUCTURE 



13 



pass through the centre of the elbow-joint and meet the ground 
at the centre of the foot 1 (Fig. 11). 

Body. — Chest. — Deep, 
full, large girth. 



Ribs. — 
sprung;, close 



Long, 



well 



Bad'. 



-Short, straight, 




strong. 

Loins. — Broad, strong, 
coupling well back, smooth ; 
flank, close, full, deep; 
top line short, level ; under 
line long, let well down in 
flank. 

Hindquarters. — Hips. 
— Wide, smooth, level. 

Croup. — Long, level, 
broad, muscular. 

Tail. — Set high, well 
carried. 

Thighs. — Long, mus- 
cular, deep. 

Stifles. — Wide, thick, 
muscular. 

Gashins. — Long, broad, muscular. 

Hocks. — Size in proportion to weight of horse, wide, deep, 
straight, flat, smooth, point prominent, well supported. 



Fig. 9. — Plantar surface of right fore-hool: 
a, a, bearing surface of the toe; a, b, bearing sur- 
face of the side walls or mammse; b, c, bearing 
surface of the quarters; d, buttress, or angle formed 
by wall and bar; e, bar; /, sole; /', branches of the 
sole; g, white line; it passes between the sole and 
bars and ends at g' ; h, horny frog; i, branches of 
the frog; k, heels, bulbs, or glomes of the hoof; 
I, median lacuna of horny frog. Between the bars 
and the horny frog lie the lateral lacuna? of the 
frog. 



1 The correct standing position of the horse at rest has formerly 
been determined from side view by a perpendicular line dropped from 
the tuberosity of the scapula, which it was claimed should divide the leg 
to the fetlock and meet the ground just back of the heel. It has been 
frequently demonstrated, however, that the best horses do not conform 
to this standard, but show, as a rule, a slight deviation downward and 
backward, which brings the fetlock posterior to the line which termi- 
nates in the centre of the foot. Recently Doctor H. Schwyter, technical 
secretary to the federal chief veterinarian of Switzerland, has established 
the direction described above as being correct. By it the centres of 
weight-bearing and of the base of support coincide as they should. 



14 



STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 



Canons, Fetlocks, Pasterns, Feet. — Size in proportion to 
weight of horse, wide, deep, straight, flat, smooth, point prom- 
inent, well supported. 




Fig. 10. — The correct standing 
position of the foreleg, viewed from 
in front, as determined by the plumb 
line. 




Fig. 11. — The correct stand- 
ing position of the foreleg, viewed 
from the side, as determined by the 
plumb line. 



Legs. — Viewed from the rear, a perpendicular line dropped 
from the point of the buttock should divide leg and foot into 
lateral halves (Fig. 12) ; viewed from the side, this line should 



CONFORMATION— THE STRUCTURE 



15 



touch the point of the hock and meet the ground some little dis- 
tance back of the heel. A perpendicular line dropped from the 
hip-joint should meel the ground midway between heel and toe 
(Fig. 13). 





Fig. 12. — The correct standing 
position of the hind leg, viewed from 
the rear, as determined by the plumb 
line. 



Fig. 13. — The correct standing 
position of the hind leg, viewed 
from the side, as determined by 
the plumb line. 



REVIEW 

1. What sort of an eye should he avoided in selecting a horse? 

2. Where are the withers and what are their desirable features? 

.'?. When is the foreleg in the correel standing position and of what 
importance is it ? 



16 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 

4. Describe the ground surface of a normal forefoot. 

5. In a horse of good conformation, how should the top line compare 

with the under line? 

6. What are the common undesirable features of the croup ? 

7. What kind of stifles should a horse have 1 ? 

8. What are the gaskins? 

9. Describe the hock that is most likely to remain sound under stress 

of wear. 
10. What is the importance of having the hind legs well set? 



CHAPTER III 
WAY OF GOING— THE FUNCTION 

The term, way of going, is self-defining. Pace refers to the 
rate at which the horse moves. Action implies flexion of knees 
and hocks. 

The Stride presents for study the following features : 

1. Length, the distance from the point of breaking over to 
the point of contact. 

2. Directness, the line in which the foot is carried forward 
during the stride. 

3. Rapidity, the time consumed in taking the stride. 

4. Power, the pulling force exerted at each stride. 

5. Height, the degree to which the foot is elevated in the 
stride, indicated by the radius of the arc described. 

6. Spring, the manner in which the weight is settled upon 
the leg and foot at the completion of the stride. 

7. Regularity, the rhythmical precision with which each 
stride is taken, in turn. 

8. Balance, the relative degree of any of the other features 
of the stride manifested by fore and hind legs. 

THE GAITS 

A gait is a particular way of going which is characterized by 
definite and distinctive features regularly executed. 

Walk is a slow, flat-footed, four-beat gait; one of the most 
useful, whether in harness or under saddle, if executed with snap 
and animation, as it should be. 

Trot is a rapid, two-beat gait, in which the diagonal fore and 
hind legs act together. The fast stepping trot is characterized 
by the length and rapidity with which the individual strides 
are accomplished, and is executed with an extreme degree 
of extension (Fig. 14). The high stepping trot is character- 
ized by the height and spring of the stride, the horse placing 
2 17 



18 



STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 



himself, going collectedly and executing each step with an ex- 
treme degree of flexion and the utmost precision (Fig. 15). 

Pace is a rapid, two-beat gait, in which the lateral fore and 
hind legs act together (Fig. 10). It is characterized by the 
readiness with which pacers can get away at speed, a minimum 
of concussion, more or less side motion, the absence of much knee 
fold (although some pacers are trappy), and the necessity for 
smooth, hard footing and easy draft, for its execution. It is 
difficult for most pacers to go in deep or heavy footing, such as 




4tfr 



Fig. 14.— The f: 



aracterized as a diagonal gait of extreme extension and rapidity 
of stride. 



fresh snow, sand or mud, and they have a jerky, unsteady way 
of pulling a wagon, if any pull is necessary. The increased 
draft of an additional person up behind or of a rough bit of road 
will swing most pacers into a trot if they can trot at all. Jogging 
down hill will force some , trotters to pace, while an up grade will 
set pacers to trotting. The pace is more essentially a speed than 
a road gait. 

Amble is a lateral gait usually distinguished from the pace 
by being slower and more broken in cadence. 

Rack is a fast, flashy, four-beat gait, more clearly defined 
by the discarded name " single foot." It is rarely executed vol- 
untarily but under compulsion of hand and heel, and is charac- 



WAV OF GOING— THE FUNCTION 



19 



terized by quite a display of knee action, and many horses can 
rack very fast. While most agreeable to the rider, it is mosl 
distressing to the horse, and should therefore be called for with 
discretion. 

Gallop is a fast, three-beat gait, in which two diagonal Legs 
are paired, their single heat falling between the successive beats 
of the other two legs, the hind one of which makes the first beat 
of the three (Fig. 17). With the third and last beat the horse is 




Fig. 15. — The high-stepping trot, showing extreme flexion of knees and hocks. 



projected clear of all contact with the ground, as in a leap, and 
there is a period of silence, broken by the contact of the indepen- 
dent hind foot, in the commencement of a new series. The two 
legs acting independently, the fore, with which the horse leads, 
and its diagonal hind, naturally bear more weight and are subject 
to more fatigue than are the other pair which act simultaneously, 
and, therefore, divide or bear jointly the work. The hind leg 
receiving the full weight at the phase of contact at the conclusion 
of the leap bears more than the foreleg, which supports the weight 
alone just before tin 1 projection of the horse at the beginning of 
the leap. The gallop may become so fast as to break the simul- 



20 



STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 



taneous beats of the diagonal pair, the hind foot striking first 
and causing four beats, although following in such rapid suc- 
cession as to be distinguished with difficulty. 

Canter is a restrained gallop in which the weight is sustained 
chiefly by the hindquarters, the lightened forehand rising and 
falling in a high, bounding fashion, the gait being executed in 
a slow, collected, rhythmical way, on either lead at command. 
Since the canter, like the gallop, imposes a special wear on the 
leading forefoot and its diagonal hind, the lead should be changed 
frequently. When the simultaneous beat is of a lateral instead 
of a diagonal pair of feet, and falls between the successive beats 




w«**f*$ 



Fig. 16. — The pace, a lateral gait of extreme extension and rapidity of stride. 



of the other lateral pair, the leading fore and hind on the same 
side, it constitutes a cross or lateral canter, and is productive of 
a twisting motion to one in the saddle. 

Jump, whether high or broad, is accomplished by the forelegs 
raising the forehand at the take-off, thus bringing the body in line 
with the direction in which the jump is to be taken, when a 
strong, propulsive effort of the hindquarters carries it over or 
across, as the case may be (Fig. 18). In alighting, the forefeet 
come in contact with the ground first and almost simultaneously, 
the leading foot being a little in advance, after which the horse 
quickly gathers himself in a stride to avoid the hind feet, which 
follow quickly and strike the ground slightly ahead of the im- 
prints of the forefeet. 



WAY OF GOING— THE FUNCTION 



21 




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22 



STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 




The leap (preparation). 



The leap (propulsion) 




The leap (passing the obstacle). 




The leap (descent in front). 



The leap (descent behind). 



Fig. IS. — The different phases and contacts in the jump. 



WAY OF GOING— THE FUNCTION 23 

Running walk is a slow, single foot or four-beat gait, inter- 
mediate between the walk and rack, suggestive of a continued 
breaking out of a walk. It is the business gait in the South and 
West, where gaited horses are ridden extensively, since it can be 
maintained all day. It is good for six to eight miles an hour, 
with the greatest possible ease to both horse and rider. 

The fox trot is a short, broken, nodding trot, in which the 
hind legs go in more or less of a lateral step. It is used as a 
substitute for the running walk. 

The stepping pace is distinct from the ordinary pace of the 
harness horse, being characterized by very little if any side 
motion and a somewhat broken cadence in the action of the lateral 
pairs of legs. 

The traverse is a side step, in which the forehand and hind- 
quarters respond to both rein and heel; it is useful in open- 
ing and closing gates, when riding after cattle, also .to " dress " 
or take position in a troop drill. 

FACTORS DETERMINING WAY OF GOING 

The factors determining a horse's way of going are either 
natural or acquired. The former consist of type, conformation, 
direction of leg and form of foot, and breeding. The acquired 
influences are schooling, handling, and mechanical appliances. 

Type. — The close observer of athletic events is impressed 
with either the distinctiveness which exists among the winners 
of the different events or the similarity of type of those who excel 
in the same feats. 

On account of the correlation between form and function, 
a horse must do as he is. His capabilities in the way of per- 
formance will be limited in some respects and extended in others, 
according to the plan of his structure. A short, thick, low sel 
horse will have more power than speed, the reverse being equally 
true. A cobby horse has a trappy stride, while the stride of a 
tall, rangy horse is characterized by reach. 

Conformation. — A horse low in the forehand is liable to 
forge, while one long and loosely coupled will have a tendency 
toward an incoordinate way of <i'oin<>;. 



24 



STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 



Direction of Leg and Form of Foot. — The relation that the 
direction of the leg bears to the form of the foot is most intimate, 
and each is an important factor in determining the directness, 
especially, of the stride. The form of the foot fixes the point at 
which the leg breaks over ; the centre of the toe, or the outer or 
inner quarter depending upon whether the foot is symmetrical or 



Q 
i 



© 



Course taken by the foot in 
correct standing position. 







Q 



Course taken by the foot Course taken by the foot 

in base or toe wide direction in base or toe narrow direc- 
of leg. tion of leg. 

Fig. 19. — Relation of direction of leg to course taken by foot in the stride. 



the inner or outer quarter is higher. The direction of the leg de- 
termines the course taken by the foot during its stride, whether 
advanced in a straight line or describing the arc of a circle inward 
or outward, depending upon the deviation in the direction of the 
leg (Fig. 19). The form of the foot and the direction of the leg 
are correlated, usually, so that their combined influence on the 
way of going may be considerable. 



WAY OF GOING— THE FUNCTION 



25 



The following are the common deviations in the direction of 
the leg. Foreleg viewed from the side : Figs. 20, 21 and 22. 

Foreleg viewed from in front: Figs. 23, 24, 25, 26, 27 
and 28. 

Hind leg viewed from the side: Fig. 29. 

Hind leg viewed from the rear : Figs. 30 and 31. 

Breeding has most to do with the particular gait at which a 
horse goes. One may visit a collection of foals or weanlings in 
a field, and upon starting them off across the field note that some 






Fig. 20. — Knee-sprung 
or over on the knees. 



Fig. 21.— Calf-kneed. 



Fig. 22. — Too straight 
pastern. 



square away at a long, reachy trot, others go high enough to 
clear the tops of the daisies, while still others break away in 
an easy gallop, each gait being executed with equal ease and 
naturalness. The reason is found in the fact that the first 
described lot are Trotting-bred, the second are Hackneys and 
the others are Thoroughbreds. In each of these the particular 
way of going is a matter of breed character, and the instinct to 
go that way is almost as strong as for either the field dog to point 
or the game bird to battle. 

Heredity. — Type, conformation, direction of leg and form 
of foot, are all more or less hereditarv characters and are asso- 



26 



STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 



ciated with a corresponding instinct. A colt is not likely to be 
endowed by inheritance with an instinct to trot and at the same 
time inherit n structure which is only adapted to galloping. 
Horses are occasionally seen, however, which, though bred prop- 
erly, manifest a disposition to do what they are physically inca- 
pable of doing. Others seem structurally qualified for superior 
performance of some one sort, but fall far short of doing anything 
remarkable, because they do not know how. Hence, we know 
that the highest order of performance can only be attained when 
the inherited instinctive tendencies are in line with the horse's 
inherited physical development. 






Fig. 23. — Base narrow, 
toe wide; nigger-heeled or 
splay-footed. 



Fig. 24. — Toe narrow 
or pigeon-toed. 



Fig. 25. — Knock-kneed. 



Schooling. — Horses, like men, reflect in their attainments: 
First, their inherent capabilities, and, second, what has been made 
of them. All the graduates of a given academic or gymnasium 
course are not equals, either in their mental or physical accom- 
plishments. Neither are all those who have been deprived of 
any educational advantages destined to a common level or rank 
in society. Some from the latter class may even reach a higher 
rung on the commercial or social ladder than others from the 
first class. An individual may owe his proficiency to either his 
opportunities or what is in him, exclusively, or to a favorable 



WAY OF GOING— THE FUNCTION 



27 



combination of both. Only the highest education, in accordance 
with the strongest natural aptitude, can accomplish the greatesl 
attainment. Hence, it is hardly worth while bo spend time and 
money in educating a colt in ways to which he is not adapted. 
It is a difficult and unsatisfactory task to school a bom trotter 
to an acceptable show of action. Ample proof of the accuracy 
of this statement, reversed, is found in the earlier days of horse 
shows in this country. It was common to find single-minded 
horsemen resorting to all sorts of ingenious ways and means of 






Fig. 26.— Bow -kneed. 



Fig. 27. — Too close at 
ground. 



Fig. 28.— Too wide at 
ground. 



preventing a horse from going high in order to make a trotter of 
him. They often gave up in despair, and sacrificed him to the 
knowing buyer, who, by changing tactics and schooling him along 
the line of action for which he had a strong inclination, finally 
turned him out a show horse of note. If, on the other hand, we 
take a natural character and develop it by artificial means, we 
may expect results far in advance of what could otherwise be 
obtained. Xo race or show horse, of any class, comes to his high 
degree of proficiency without an education. The trotter must 
not only be trained to make him physically fit for the race but he 
must l)e taught to step. The same is true of actors, saddle horses. 



28 



STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 



jumpers, and others. They are all given the natural aptitude to 
begin with, but that is not sufficient to get the best out of them. 
Handling. — Handling is but the application of the school- 
ing. It is painful to see a well-schooled saddle horse, to whom 
every little movement of hand or heel has a meaning, with some 
awkward man up who is reaping the fruits of his ignorant hand- 
ling in a ride that is most distressing both to himself and his 
mount ; or to see a horse, on whom much effort has been spent in 
teaching him to flex his neck, knees, and hocks in a proud, col- 




Fio. 29. — Bent, sabre, or 
hock. 



sickle Fig. 30. — Cow-hocked. 



Fig. 31. — Bandy-legged or 
wide at the hocks. 



lected, high way of going, put in light harness, with the omni- 
present Kimball Jackson overdraw, and a heavy-fisted driver up 
who boasts of how fast the horse can step. It is as essential that 
the handling be in accord with the schooling as that the schooling 
should follow the line of natural aptitude. The handling offers 
the stimulus, the schooling makes possible the response ; har- 
mony is, therefore, imperative. There are individual differ- 
ences in the methods of different handlers, though the same gen- 
eral system may be employed. Among all race and show riders 
or drivers, each fundamentally correct in his methods, there is 
always one who is capable of better results than the others. 



WAY OF GOING— THE FUNCTION 29 

Mechanical appliances are chiefly accessories to the handling 
and schooling of horses. They consist of the bit, shoes, weight, 
and hopples. 

Bit. — The influence of the bit is strongly suggestive of one 
or the other ways of going, as discussed under equitation. 

Shoes. — The style of the shoe and the dressing of the foot 
for its application have considerable influence on the way of 
going. By shortening or lengthening the toe, the breaking over 
is either facilitated or retarded, with a consequent shortening 
or lengthening of the stride ; by raising or lowering the inner or 
outer quarter, the point at which breaking over takes place may 
be regulated, within limits. 

Weight. — By either putting weight on or taking it off the 
foot, the stride is heightened or lowered. Weight may be secured 
either by permitting an abnormal growth of the foot itself or in 
the shoe. Weight fixed at the toe promotes extension on the prin- 
ciple of the pendulum, the weight coming into play toward the 
end of the stride to carry the foot out. On the other hand, weight 
well back in the shoe, toward the heel, is believed to be conducive 
to action by calling for extra flexion, in order to lift the foot. 
Whatever alterations are made in the matter of shoeing or 
weighting must be gradual, in order not to unbalance the horse 
in his stride. 

Hopples. — By uniting a hind and a fore leg by means of 
hopples, a horse is held to his stride and prevented from break- 
ing, mixing, or going any other gait, The straps are crossed or 
straight, depending upon whether the horse trots or paces. 
Hopples about the pasterns are sometimes put on harness horses 
to develop action. 

Going Surface. — While not of a mechanical nature, the char- 
acter of the surface on which the horse steps has a marked influ- 
ence on the kind of stride he takes. As a general rule, heavy, 
soft, or deep going causes a high stride, while a hard, smooth 
surface is more conducive to speed. Of the speed horses, trotters 
and pacers require the hardest, smoothest track. Heavy going 
frequently influences double-gaited horses to trot instead of pace 
and seriously interferes with pacing performance. Thinners do 



30 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 

best on the turf or a dirt track that has had the surface loosened 
by a scratch harrow. 

Defects and Peculiarities in Way of Going. — Forging. — 
Striking the ends of the branches or the under surface of the 
shoe of a forefoot with the toe of the hind foot. 

Interfering. — Striking the supporting leg at the fetlock with 
the foot of the striding leg. It is predisposed in horses with base 
narrow, toe wide, or splay-footed standing position. 

Paddling. — An outward deviation in the direction of the 
stride of the foreleg, the result of a toe narrow or pigeon-toed 
standing position. 

Winging. — Exaggerated paddling, noticeable in high going 
horses. 

Winding. — A twisting of the striding leg around in front of 
the supporting leg in much the same manner as in paddling. 
This is most commonly seen in wide-fronted draft horses at the 
walk. 

Scalping. — Hitting the front of the hind foot above or at the 
line of the hair against the toe of the breaking over forefoot. 

Speedy Catting. — The spreading trotter at speed hits the 
hind leg above the scalping mark against the inside of the break- 
ing over forefoot as he passes. 

Cross-firing. — Essentially forging in pacers, in which they 
hit the inside of the near fore-and off hind foot or the reverse in 
the air as the stride of the hind leg is about completed and the 
stride of the foreleg just begun. 

Pointing. — A stride in which extension is much more marked 
than flexion. It is especially characteristic of the Thorough- 
bred. The same term is also used to indicate the resting of one 
forefoot in an advanced position to relieve the back tendons. 

Dwelling. — A perceptible pause in the flight of the foot, as 
though the stride had been completed before the foot has reached 
the ground. Most noticeable in actors. 

Trappy. — A quick, high, but comparatively short stride. 

Pounding. — A heavy contact usually accompanying a high 
stride. 

Rolling. — Excessive lateral shoulder motion as in wide 
fronted horses. 



WAY OF GOING— THE FUNCTION 31 

REVIEW 

1. Name the features of the stride. 

2. How may the pace be distinguished from the trot? 

:5. What are the special advantages and disadvantages under which 

pacers labor? 
4. How may the gait of a racking horse be recognized in the dark? 
f). Describe a cross canter. 
0. What is the importance of changing leads at the canter or gallop? 

7. How may a horse's way of going be predicted without seeing him 

move? 

8. To what extent may the schooling determine the horse's way of 

going? 

9. What effect does weight in the foot, also the surface over which the 

horse steps, have on the stride? 
10. What is understood by forging, interfering, pointing, and dwelling? 



PART II 

TYPES AND BREEDS 



CHAPTER IV 
THE TYPES OF HORSES 

A horse's usefulness depends upon his power of locomotion, 
and whether he moves with power, speed, show, or to carry 
weight will determine whether he is a draft, a race, a show, or 
a saddle horse. The sum total of those characteristics, by which 
adaptability to the different kinds of service is determined, con- 
stitutes the type. 

Draft Type. — The service of the draft horse is to furnish 
power to move the heaviest of loads, usually over the paved 
surfaces of traffic-congested city streets (Fig. 32). Special 
efficiency in this line of service depends upon the possession of : 

1. Weight sufficient (1500 to 2400 pounds) to hold the horse 
to a secure footing during muscular exertion, by increasing the 
friction between the shoe and the opposing hard, smooth surface 
of the roadway or pavement. Weight thrown into the collar 
also supplements muscular exertion. 

2. Low station, to bring the centre of gravity as near the base 
of support as possible, thereby increasing stability of equilib- 
rium, as stability of equilibrium is the measure of power. 
Length of leg is largely determined by length of canon bone, and 
a short canon is correlated, and therefore indicative of a short, 
broad, deep, and compact horse. 

3. Breadth, to give a horse ample skeletal foundation for the 
support of great muscular development, and also to increase 
laterally the base of support, which affords a much more stable 
balance and in turn increases the power. 

4. Depth, to afford heart, lung, and digestive capacity, which 
is a most essential asset to a horse which must expend much 
energy, almost continually, for long hours, and six days a week. 

5. Compactness, to insure a short vertebral column, bring- 
ing the source of power, the hindquarters, nearer to the applica- 
tion of power at the shoulder, thereby minimizing loss in trans- 
mission, and making for strength and rigidity of the shaft, as 
it were. 

35 



36 



TYPES AND BREEDS 



0. Massiveness, which suggests heavy muscling with the 
thick, bulky power variety; therefore, a horse cannot be drafty 
without being massive. 

7. Bone. The muscles operate the bone levers by contracting 
upon them through a fixed point and a movable insertion. For 
that reason the resisting power of the bone must be proportionate 




Fig. 32. — The draft type, showing the weight, the low, wide, compact, mai 
bone and the muscling which characterize the horse of power. 



the 



to the contracting force of the muscle. Horses have been known 
to fracture their own bones by the power of muscular contraction. 
Furthermore, a horse has the appearance of being unbalanced in 
his makeup if too fine in his underpinning. Hence the demand 
for heavy bone in draft horses is fully warranted, but should 
be made with a full knowledge of just what it means. The 
region of the canon, usually regarded as the index of bone, in- 
cludes, in addition to the canon bone proper and the two rudi- 



THE TYPES OF HORSES 37 

mentary splint bones, the flexor and extensor tendons, the suspen- 
sory ligament, a variable amount of connective tissue, and the 
skin and hair. The total circumference may, therefore, be con- 
siderable and yet not represent real bone. The bony structure 
itself is made up of inorganic and organic constituents; the 
former are the more essential to wear and determine the texture. 
As a matter of fact, coarse texture of tendons, ligaments, and 
bones themselves, together with too much connective tissue, a 
thick hide, and coarse hair, tend to increase size in the canon 
region without increasing the wearing qualities of the bone. It 
is therefore real, and not apparent, bone which counts, and the 
eye and hand are more reliable than the tape line for determining 
its amount. Furthermore, the object of " big bone " is not to 
insure against fracture of the horse's leg but to furnish joint 
surface of sufficient area and durability to insure the horse re- 
maining sound under stress of the wear to which it is subject in 
the course of its work. The bone of the canon region is, there- 
fore, but an index after all. 

8. Quality, not being correlated with substance, is more diffi- 
cult of attainment in a draft horse, but there is an increasing 
favor expressed for more refined heads and necks, general finish, 
and better texture of bone, hoof, and hair. As much quality as 
is consistent with the required substance is desirable. 

9. Temperament of the draft horse is generally lymphatic, 
but sluggishness is discriminated against. While the nature of 
his work requires that the draft horse be steady, patient, and 
readily tractable, it is, nevertheless, essential that it be per- 
formed willingly and with some snap and aggressiveness. Dis- 
position should be good to offset frequent provocation. 

10. Way of going. Most drivers, for well-regulated draft 
horse stables, are instructed to walk their teams both when loaded 
and light, and experience seems to justify such action. In the 
first place, a draft horse must walk at least one-half his time, 
and if he is never allowed to trot he acquires a rapid, snappy 
walk which will accomplish as many miles in the course of a 
day's work as can be done by the horse which is compelled to trot 
and allowed to walk only for the purpose of resting. The weight 



38 



TYPES AND BREEDS 



of "the draft horse is so greal and the surface he walks over so 
hard that concussion is a big factor in endurance and durability, 
and concussion is increased immeasurably at the trot. Condi- 
tions of traffic in most city streets are such as to make trotting 
impracticable. However, any draft horse should be able to trot 
well. The trot accentuates all features of the walk, so that to be 
able to trot well insures a good walk (Fig. 33). 

The draft horse gait, then, is the walk, a powerful, prompt, 
swinging stride of as much length as the short legs will allow. 




Fig. 33. — The way a draft horse should be able to move. A powerful, straight, free 
stride, hocks sharply flexed, well under and elose together, good knee action but no rolling 
or pounding in front. 



The notion that a longer legged horse, with his longer stride, can 
accomplish more is not, borne out in experience, except with 
mules. A leggy drafter lacks coordination in his movements, 
which counts against him in the course of the day, even though 
his single stride is longer. Furthermore, correlated with his 
length of leg is a general deficiency in draftiness. 

There is a tendency in massive draft horses to roll or paddle 
in front and go wide behind, on account of their broad fronts and 
thick thighs. This is objectionable, if very marked, as it results 



THE TYPES OF HORSES 



39 



in an unequal distribution of weight and work on the joints and 
foot, as well as being unsightly. 

Speed Type. — When speed performance alone is considered, 
the minimum weight to be pulled or carried is imposed. Speed 
depends upon the length of the individual strides and the rapidity 
with which, they can be repeated. Muscular contraction, there- 
fore, must be of greatest degree and most quickly accomplished. 




Fig. 34. — The speed type, representing the long, rangy, angular, narrow but deep form 
correlated with length and rapidity of stride. 



Muscles capable of such contraction are long and band-like, com- 
pared to the short and thick muscles of power. 

Form. — A horse to be fast, at whatever gait, must have the 
following form : 

(1) Must be long and rangy in form to accommodate the 
length of muscles and to increase the length of the reach in 
extension. 

(2) Must be lithe, indicating a system of muscles of the 
speed sort (Fig. 34). 



40 TYPES AND BREEDS 

(3) Must be angular, not having the form rounded out by 
bulky muscles, and carrying no excess weight in fat. 

(4) Must be narrow, to permit of the greatest directness of 
shoulder motion and to offer the least resistance to the wind. 

(5) Must be deep, to insure ample heart, lung, and digestive 
capacity, which it is not possible to secure by width. 

Quality, denoting the finest texture of structure, to insure 
durability, with least weight and bulk, is necessary in a horse 
that is to attain great speed. 

Stamina, bottom, and heartiness are most essential. 

The temperament should be nervous, affording the requisite 
nerve force and courage to properly control and sustain the per- 
formance of which the speed horse is mechanically capable. 

Their way of going serves as a basis for further classification 
into (1) trotters or pacers, (2) runners or jumpers. 

Trotters and pacers accomplish what is asked of them by 
virtue of their ability to extend themselves into a long, reachy 
stride done rapidly. They are capable of the greatest length of 
stride, on account of the greater proportionate length of forearm 
and lower thigh which they possess. Their muscles are corre- 
spondingly long, narrow, and band-like, with the capacity for 
rapid contraction in an extreme degree. Pacing is differen- 
tiated as a lateral instead of a diagonal gait, and usually goes 
with greater length of limb in proportion to body, lower fore- 
hand, longer, steeper croup, and more bent hocks than are seen 
in the trotter. In double-gaited horses these differences may 
not be apparent. 

The runner attains speed by a series of successive jumps, in 
which the propulsive power of the hindquarters is most marked. 
He is, therefore, characterized by greater development of fore- 
hand, a thicker stifle, and a straighter hind leg with less propor- 
tionate length from the hip-joint to the hock than characterizes 
the trotter. His characteristic way of standing easy on his front 
legs is shown by experience to have its influence in reducing con 
cussion, in the recovery at the end of each jump. As a rule, speed 
over the jumps is more a matter of schooling and temperament 
than of conformation, although there is alleged to be a certain 
straightness of top line, especially in the region of the loin, which 



THE TYPES OF HORSES 



41 



is distinctive of the steeple chaser. Then, too, the characteristics 
associated with, a runner may be somewhat accentuated in a 
steeple chaser. 

Show Type. — So far as speed and power are concerned the 
show horse requirements are intermediate. It is the manner in 
which he moves and the appearance he makes while going, rather 
than the pace or the weight of the load, which connt. 

In order to qualify as a show horse he must possess : 







Fig. 35. — The show type, representing the close and full made form, the quality and 
style essential to look the part, and the sort of conformation that enables a horse to be 
an actor. 

Form, close and full made, stout enough to pull a vehicle 
designed . after the English notion that " to drive handsomely is 
to drive heavily," smoothly turned and rotimd enough to har- 
monize with the lines and proportions of the vehicle to which 
he is put, and to look well before it (Fig. 35). 

Substance, present in a. degree proportioned to the style and 
weight of the vehicle concerned. 



42 



TYPES AND BREEDS 



Quality, general refinement and finish to enhance good looks. 

Temperament, active, stylish, proud, bold, and courageous. 

The actor or high going horse is such structurally and tem- 
peramentally. He must possess a general suppleness and flexi- 
bility that is found only with length of shoulder and pastern, 
neck and croup. But this is true in equal degree of the saddle 
horse. The actor, in addition, is close made in profile, full made 
from the end, in order that he may better fit heavy leather and 




Fig. 



36. — A weight carrier, illustrating the bone and muscular development which with a 
short back and legs render a horse "up to" two hundred pounds or more. 



conform to the heavy vehicles to which he is put. Furthermore, 
he must not only possess joints of such angles as to permit of 
extreme flexion, but he must be thoroughly disposed so to go, bend- 
ing himself in every joint from the ground to the tip of his chin 
and to the last segment of his abbreviated dock. Height of stride 
is his, and he must have the style and finish to properly set off 
the show he is to make. 

Saddle Type. — The saddle horse must carry weight from 135 
to 200 pounds or over, with greatest satisfaction to his rider and 



THE TYPES OE HOUSES 



43 



least distress to himself. The prescribed ways in which the 
weight is to be carried differentiate the classes of saddle horses. 

Ability to support weight requires comparatively short, stout 
legs, acting as columns, and a short, strong, closely coupled hack 
and loin, constituting the arch (Fig. 36). 

The actual carrying of the weight is accomplished by the 
horse's placing himself in such a way as to balance his load, 




Fig. 37. — The saddle type, showing the short top and long under line, sloping shoulders, the 
high, well-finished withers, and the long, fine, supple neck essential in the saddle horse. 



going well off his hocks, and working his legs under him in such 
a way as to sustain the weight at all phases of the stride. There 
is a knack in carrying weight ; the remarkable feats of the expe- 
rienced baggage man in the handling of trunks can be accounted 
for on the same principle. Size is secondary to the way a horse 
is set up, and to the way he goes. 

A saddle horse must he light in the forehand, possess a supple 



44 TYPES AND BREEDS 

neck, a responsive mouth, and a high order of intelligence in 
order to qualify for the schooling which is required to make a 
finished mount. His form is outlined by a short top and 
long- under line, and is characterized by the development of the 
forehand. Shoulders should be unusually long, sloping, and 
extended into high, narrow, well-finished withers, which have 
the effect of placing the saddle well back and holding it in that 
position, without suffering injury from its impingement (Fig. 
37). The greatly desired "long rein" and "much horse in 
front of the rider " are thus secured. Such a forehand will be 
comparatively narrow and deep, thus permitting a secure and 
comfortable seat without the spread of knees and thighs occa- 
sioned by the full-made harness horse. 

The chief characteristics of the saddle horse stride are spring 
and accuracy, both being most conducive to the comfort and 
security of the rider. All gaits but the gallop and run are exe- 
cuted in a collected manner, with only sufficient action to insure 
freedom of stride. A well-schooled saddle horse should be 
capable of a most finished performance ; he should change gaits, 
canter on either lead or in a circle, back, traverse, or side step, 
and be thoroughly responsive to the hand, rein, and heel. 

REVIEW 

1. Why should a draft horse be low set, broad, deep, compact, and 

massive? 

2. Explain how weight increases the power of the city draft horse. 

3. Describe the ideal draft hoi-se bone; of what importance is it? 

4. How should the draft horse walk and why? 

5. What is the relation of speed to draft? 

6. AVhat are the characteristics of the speed type and why? 

7. How may a trotter, a pacer, and a runner be distinguished without 

seeing them go? 

8. Describe the show type and give reasons for each feature. 

9. Account for the fact that an S00 pound pony may carry a 200 pound 

man more easily than a 1200 pound horse can. 
10. Describe the forehand of a typical saddle horse and give reasons. 



CHAPTER V 
THE CLASSES OF HORSES 

Basis of Class Distinctions. — The characters upon the basis 
of which class distinctions are made arc height, weight, form, 
quality, substance, condition, temperament, manners, and color. 

Height. — The stature at the highest point of the withers, 
measured in hands, four inches to the hand. Fractions of the 
hand are expressed in inches, as 15 hands, 2 inches or 15-2. 

Weight. — Height and weight combined determine scale, 
which is synonymous with size. 

Form. — That general contour of outline which determines 
whether a. horse is smoothly turned or angular, massive or lithe, 
low set or rangy. 

Quality. — That which refers to the texture and finish, as 
determined by the character of the individual units of structure. 
Quality is indicated in hide and hair, bone and general refine- 
ment. 

Substance. — That which refers to the amount of the struct- 
ural material, as determined by the number and size of the indi- 
vidual units of structure. 

Condition. — Not so much the state of health as that which 
comes as a result of fitting. In the ordinary market horse it is 
the difference between being fat and thin, while in the race 
horse it suggests the trained, as against the untrained. 

Temperament. — A horse may be too hot to work or too cold 
for a race horse. 

Manners. — It has already been stated that a horse's value is 
materially influenced by what he can do. It is essential that he 
should do all, and that as well as he can. Manners, therefore, 
" count " in the value to users of all horses. 

Color. — Color has much to do in determining a horse's class 
value. A good horse is said never to have a bad color, yet certain 
colors are preferred or even required in some classes of horses 
where other colors are undesirable or even prohibited. 

45 



46 TYPES AND BREEDS 

Color is the most conspicuous feature by which a horse can 
be described or identified, so that a uniform and comprehensive 
color standard is important. Colors may be generally classed as 
solid or broken, distinguished by the presence or absence of white 
spots. Solid colors are further differentiated as hard or soft. 
A hard color is one in which the shade is sharply pronounced, 
while soft colors are characterized by either a total absence of 
pigment, as in the case of the white horse with pink skin, or a 
washed-out or faded shade of some of the other colors. 

Broken colors are either the piebald and skewbald, in which 
the amount of white is considerable and the distribution irreg- 
ular; or marked, when the white is limited in amount and 
definitely restricted in its location. 

Then there are a number of odd colors and markings which 
do not conform to the above distinctions nor admit of any but a 
group classification. 

Classification of Color. — Solid hard colors are : Bay — Bright 
or cherry, blood red, mahogany or dark. 

Brown — Bay, seal, mealy, black. 

Chestnut — Golden, red, burnt, black. 

Black — Jet, sooty. 

Gray — Dappled, steel, iron, black, flea-bitten. 

Roan — Blue, red, strawberry. 

Solid soft colors are white (pink skin), mealy bay, and 
washy chestnut. 

Broken colors are piebald, skewbald, and marked. 

Odd colors are cream, mouse and dun. The dun may be 
grouped into light or Isabella and dark or buckskin. 

Markings. — White — Bald face, blaze, star, snip, strip, splash, 
stocking, sock, fetlock, pastern, coronet, heel. 

Black — Points, lines.. 

Odd — Tiger spots, leprous spots, wall-eyed. 

The standing of different colors will depend, in the case of 
many of them, upon the class of the horse in question. In gen- 
eral the different shades of bay may be considered as the best 
all-round color. Bay has been referred to as " everyman's " 
color. 

Brown is also a staple color like bay. 



THE CLASSES OF HORSES 47 

Chestnut, especially the golden and red, is one of the most 
attractive colors and when accompanied by white markings, as 
chestnut is quite liable to be, presents an extremely flashy appear- 
ance. This is one of the most popular colors in high-class harness 
and saddle horses. 

Black, while most popular in fiction, is in fact not a good 
color for selling. It is objected to chiefly on the ground that it 
is not often fast black but fades and sunburns badly in hot 
weather ; the sooty more so than the jet black. Black is also 
objectionable on account of the flecked appearance which it 
acquires as the horse is warmed up. ~No matter how carefully 
the coat is groomed, every hair that is turned appears as a dirty, 
gray fleck, as soon as the sweat dries. Black harness horses are 
commonly cross matched with grays. The chief specific demand 
for black horses comes from undertakers. 

Gray is the color most in demand in the draft classes, al- 
though frequently discriminated against in horses of any other 
type. The preference for grays is stated, by draft horse buyers, 
to be due to the fact that they experience less difficulty in match- 
ing up a team of from two to six grays than in the case of any 
other color. This may be accounted for to some extent by the 
fact that gray is the predominating color in the draft breed which 
outnumbers all other draft breeds combined, in this country. It 
would seem at first thought that bays could be more easily 
matched than grays. But bays are most frequently marked with 
white, which necessitates a matching of markings as well as of 
shade. Grays, furthermore, appear to harmonize better with the 
red, green, or yellow combinations in which most commercial 
vehicles are finished. It is also reasonable to claim that the 
gray horse is less sensitive to heat than the horse of darker color, 
since white has the physical property of reflecting the sun's rays, 
while black absorbs them. This fact is borne out. by one's ordi- 
nary experience with light and dark suits of the same weight. 
Gray horses, outside the work horse division, are generally 
objected to on account of the conspicuousness of their hair when 
shed; the degree in which they show stable stain, although this 
difficulty is largely overcome by the use of peat moss bedding; 
and the inevitable disappearance, with advancing age, of the 



48 TYPES AND BREEDS 

black pigment in the hair, resulting' in white color and a predis- 
position to melanotic tumors. On the other hand, gray horses 
show dandruff and body dirt less than most other colors. The 
darker shades are most preferred, although in the hunting field, 
on the race track, or even in the show ring a beautifully dappled 
light gray horse will invariably catch the eye. History has done 
much to offset the prejudice against gray horses. Grays are cross 
matched in pairs with blacks, chestnuts, and browns. 

Roan* of either shade is becoming more popular or prevalent 
in draft horses, due perhaps to the increasing number of Belgian 
grades which come to market, roan being common in that breed. 
In harness and saddle horses, red roan especially is a rather 
pleasing though not common color. 

Piebalds and skewbalds are popular colors in ponies, and in 
sporting fours and tandems where striking colors are a feature ; 
also for advertising wagons and the circus, where it is desirable 
to have them conspicuous. A piebald is a black and white com- 
bination, while any color other than black, such as bay, brown, 
or chestnut, combined with white, constitutes a skewbald. 

Cream, dun and mouse colors are generally in disfavor ex- 
cept for some special purpose, although the buckskin, a darker 
shade of dun which is distinguished from cream by black points, 
has a reputation for stamina. 

White markings are most desirable in horses of the show 
type, since they enhance the brilliancy of a flashy performance. 
Even here they are objectionable in ladies' classes. 

Black points are, as a rule, considered indicative of greater 
wearing qualities, and it is a fact that the blue horn of the black 
foot is more dense and tough than the white. White points 
behind are less objectionable than in front. In fact they are 
generally considered to improve a horse's appearance as does 
some white in his countenance. White markings, wherever they 
may be, should be as symmetrical as possible and sharply defined. 
Large, irregular white patches or splashes are extremely 
objectionable. 

Odd markings are undesirable. The leprous spots are the 
small, more or less regular areas, completely denuded of pig- 
ment, that are seen about the muzzle, the eyes, and under the tail. 



THE CLASSES OF HORSES 



49 



The so-called tiger spots are the large, irregular areas of a pinkish 

or yellowish tint, surrounded by a zoi f lighter shade, which 

resemble in appearance the spots on the tiger lily. They are 
especially common over the croup. 

By classes of horses is meant the market and show ring crea- 
tions. The classes should not he confused with types, which are 
mechanical distinctions. 

Market and Shoiv Classes 



I. Work 



A. Drafter 

B. Logger 

C. Chunk 

D. Feeder ' 



Expresser 



J I. Heavy 

Harness 



A. Coach 



15. Park 



\~~~"~- 
\ 



__ Runabout 



-5>- 



///. Light 

Harness 



A. Roadster 

(Trotter 



B. Speed 



(Pacer 



Cob 



A. Race Horse (Runner) 

B. Walk-trot-cantor 
IV. Saddle q. Gaited 

D. Hunter 

E. Combination 



A Under 46 inches (Shetland) 
V. Pony B. 11-2 to 14-2 

C. Polo Pony 



The Work Horse Division. — Drafters have already been 
described as the power type. Drafters are worked in single, 
pair, three-way, four-, or six-horse hitches. The demand for the 
highest elass of draft horses comes chiefly from city business 
firms who make the appearance of their horses and wagons on 
the streets a feature of their advertising policies (Figs. 38, 39. 
and 40). 

A. 



50 



TYPES AND BREEDS 



In a consideration of draft form, height is secondary to 
weight and station. In the selection of market draft geldings, 
however, height is important. While the low set, compact horse 
is most powerful, such chunky form is not conducive to as great 
size as that of more range and higher stature. This is especially 
true of immature draft colts. There must be considerable 
" stretch " to them if they are to attain the required size at 
maturity. An upstanding growthy two-year-old gives greater 




Fig. 38. — A trey or three-way hitch of drafters to truck, showing the scale, form, and con- 
formation of horses of this class, also the manner of hitching. 



promise than the smoothly turned, mature looking chunk of the 
same age. Growth takes place first upward, then downward and 
outward. 

Appearance, as well as power, counts in the service for which 
the highest class of draft geldings are bought, and unless a horse 
has stature he appears " squatty " before the big wagons or 
trucks to which he is put. 

Loggers are up to draft horse requirements in all but quality. 
They are too coarse, unsymmetrical, low bred, or badly blemished 



THE CLASSES OF HORSES 



51 



to satisfy the city demand, and are therefore relegated chiefly 
to the lumber camps, where hard work only is required. 

Cl'unks represent the extreme of draft form, as their name 



■ 
j 




19. — A draft pair of unusual quality and attractive 




Fig. 40.— A six-horse draft team to packer's van, showing the relative balance between the 
lead, swing, and wheel pair, also complete appointments. 

implies, but are deficient in scale, ranging- in weight from 1200 
to 1500 pounds (Fig. 41). They are handy work horses, taken 
chiefly for the hauling of heavy loads which must be delivered 
more rapidly than can be done with draft horses, as in the case 



52 



TYPES AND BREEDS 



of breweries. The lower grade of chunks meets the demand of 
the contractors and the farm trade. 

Expressers are rapid draft horses, capable of working at the 
trot. They have enough of the draft form to insure the requisite 
size, substance, and power, at the same time departing from the 
draft type in that they are more rangy and less massive, in order 
that they may be capable of stepping away at a sharp trot (F ig. 
42). They have been referred to as " drafters with coach Horse 
finish " and as " coachers with draft horse substance." Ex- 
pressers vary in weight from 1250 to 1 500 pounds, and serve a 
wide range of uses in the numerous lines of delivery service. 




Fig. 41. 



-A pair of chunks to truck, showing the extremely drafty form, bone, and rugged- 
ness typical of this class. 



Feeders are thin horses of any of the above classes, the de- 
mand for which comes from those who make horses the medium 
through which to market their corn. A feeder, to be profitable, 
must have class and be deficient only in condition. 

Heavy Harness Horse Division. — There is a suggestiveness 
about the term heavy harness which is not generally compre- 
hended. Harness horses are of two classes, heavy and light, the 
adjective in each case qualifying the harness and not the horse. 
The heavy harness horse is one of fashion, of English creation, 
and it is to English sentiment that he owes his name. He con- 
forms to the Englishman's idea that " to drive handsomely one 



THE CLASSES OF HORSES 



)3 



must drive heavily." Their vehicles are designed on lines of 
dignity and elegance, which make them in sonic cases almost 
ponderous. The harness, by which the horses arc put to them, 
is of necessity correspondingly heavy, characterized by weight 
of leather, Kay collars, metal mountings, Liverpool, elbow, 
or Buxton bits, with side or no bearing reins. The horse, to 
complete this equipage and be capable of both acting and looking 
the part, must be close and full made with extreme finish, style, 
and action — the show type. 




Fi<;. 42. — An expresser for light delivery service, showing the combination of draft horse; 
size and substance with coach horse form and finish. 



Coach horses arc big, substantial, heavy harness horses with 
enough size and substance to pull a brougham or coach, yet suffi- 
ciently refined to make a good appearance (Fig. 43). They must 
have an elegant,' bold, commanding way of going about an eight- 
mile pace, with manners that will insure safe conveyance through 
city traffic, or standing in pose for long periods of waiting. 
Coach horses arc put to the brougham, landau, or, as wheelers 
especially, to the brake, drag, or coach, hitched singly, in pairs, 
or fours. 

Pari- horses, as the name implies, are for park driving, not 



54 



TYPES AND BREEDS 



for town work. They are the show harness horses, only suffi- 
ciently close and full made to have that rotundity of form which 
looks hest in heavy leather, possessing a degree of refinement 
equaled only by the park saddle horse and the most extravagant 
flexion of knees and hocks. They should be capable of a pace 
of twelve miles an hour, which greatly enhances the flashiness 
and brilliancy of their action. Park horses are driven singly, 
in pairs, and fours, put to the gig, the Sayler Avagon, an Amer- 
ican four-wheeler which has taken the place of the gig quite 
generally (Fig. 44) ; demi mail, Stanhope, spider or George 
IV phaeton (the latter for ladies' use), park drag or victoria. 




FlG. 43. — A class of coach horses to brougham and victorias. Pair on the right to brougham 
show the size and substance which distinguish the coach horse from the park horse. 



Usually owners drive in all but the last instance. Park horses 
are classified by height, ranging from the pony limit of 14—2 to 
15-3 hands. 

Runabout horses are defined by the name under which they 
are classed, that is, handy little harness horses with which to 
get about (Fig. 45). They are small, not over 15—1 as a rule, 
in order to have the requisite handiness and combine some of the 
step of the road horse with some of the shape and action of the 
park horse, although extreme action is not typical of this class. 
Manners must be of the best to insure them standing without 
hitching, backing out of tight places, and going anywhere. Run- 
about horses are put to the light four-wheel Avagon designated by 
the same name. 



THE CLASSES OF HORSES 



55 




Fig. 44. — A park mare to Sayler wagon, representing the extreme refinement and brilliant 
action which distinguish the park horse from all other harness horses. 




Fig. 4. : 



a handy, shapely, well-mannered little horse, with a fair degree 
of both pace and action. 



Cobs are of a type readily distinguished from any of the 
other classes in the heavy harness division, although the terra 
cob is loosely used in referrinc; to any docked horse, wheth< r of 



56 



TYPES AND BREEDS 



cobby build or not. The typical cob does not stand over 15.1, 
is low set, extremely close and full made, lias unusual bone and 
muscular development, and a short but trappy way of going 
(Fig. 46). He may be briefly described as a big little horse, 
of a rugged though not coarse appearance. Cobs are used to 
both ride and drive and are remarkable weight carriers. 

Light Harness Horse Division. — Light harness horses are 
as distinctly American in their origin as the heavy harness are 
English, and it is interesting to note the reciprocal favor which 
each is receiving in the other country. 




Fig. 46. — A cob to runabout, a big, little horse of extremely compact and rotund form. 

Since maximum speed requires minimum draft, American 
road wagons are built of such material and in such fashion as 
to impose upon the horse the least weight that is consistent with 
the safe and comfortable conveyance of one or two people. They 
are, therefore, in striking contrast to the English carriages and 
require harness correspondingly light. 

The light harness horse follows the speed type but differs 
from the running race horse in being somewhat lower in the fore- 
hand, longer and more sloping in the croup, longer from the 
hip-joint to the hock, with the hocks set further back and the 



THE CLASSES OF HORSES 



57 



leg below the hock directed more downward and forward (Fig. 

True pacers, as a rule, are longer in le^s, lower in the fore- 
hand, with longer, steeper croups and more bent hocks than the 
trotter. The size of the light harness horse is too variable to 
be denned by any but the widest limits. If horses of this type 
are of good size, well made, stylish, straight gaited, even though 
not possessed of extreme speed, and have good manners, they 
are classed as gentlemen's road horses (Fig. 48). On the other 
hand, extremely fast horses, either at trot or pace, whether they 
have anything else to recommend them or 
not, are classed as speed horses ( Fig. 49 ). 

Road horses are hitched singly or in pairs, 
while speed horses are seldom used to pole. 
The road wagon is the typical roadster hitch, 
while speed horses are hooked to bike sulkies, 
or speed wagons, the lightest type of vehicle 
built to meet, the amateur requirements, which 
call for a four-wheeled wagon. Speed horses 
are classified according to their record 
performances. 

Saddle Horse Division. — The saddle 
horse was primarily a utility horse, as a 
matter of necessity, in pioneer times prior to 
the construction of roads and vehicles, but 
he has become in addition a most popular 
source of pleasure, with circumstances 
attending his use so diversified as to call for a variety of types. 
Some horses are ridden for the ease with which they carry one, 
while others are used for the exercise and liver stimulation which 
they afford. Then, again, some are ridden in a dignified manner 
in the parks and on the boulevards, while others are ridden 
" rough " in the field and cross country. The distinction be- 
tween the first two, in this country, is very largely one of school- 
ing and trimming, although the English type of walk-trot-canter 
saddle horse is quite distinctive in breeding and general make-up. 

The race horse is the truest exponent of the speed type, hut 
is used essentially as u saddle horse, a galloper, and is therefore 




Fig. 47.— The bent 
hock-joint. 



58 



TYPES AND BREEDS 




Fig. 4S. — A gentleman's road mare. Although of speed form, she is of good size, symmetri- 
cal shape, faultless conformation, and shows great refinement, style, and intelligence. 




Fig. 49. — A trotter to sulky, adhering strictly to the speed type yet possessing more size 
and substance and better conformation than is common in horses of this class. 



THE CLASSES OE HORSES 



59 



classed in the saddle division. Runners are distinguished from 
trotters and pacers by greater development of the forehand, by 
a shorter back, more level croup, straighter hind legs (Fig. 50), 
with less proportionate length from hip-joint to hock and more 
from hock to the ground. Their way of going is also distinctive ; 
they have a wonderful reach and length of jump at the run, and 
gallop beautifully, but have a low, pointing stride at the trot 
(Fig. 51). They race on the flat, or over the steeple chase 
course of jumps, according to their own natural aptitude and 
the schooling which they have received. Running race horses 
are handicapped by the weight required to be 
carried, an impost of only an ounce making 
a considerable difference in a horse's finish. 
Gaited saddle horses are the distinctly 
American saddle horses (Fig. 52), although 
ambling saddle horses were at one time used 
in England, and at present the gaited horse 
is apparently losing favor in some important 
] tarts of this country to the walk-trot horse of 
English idea. Gaited horses are required to 
go at least five gaits : the walk, either the run- 
ning walk, fox trot, or slow pace; the trot; 
rack; and canter; all described under gaits. 
They cany full mane and tail and are the 
ideal of the Southern and Western saddle 



horse contingent. 




Fio. 50.— The straight 
hock-joint. 



Walk-trot-canter saddle horses do just 
what is enumerated in the name, are usually 
docked and their manes pulled (Fig. 53). Many of our best 
walk-trot-canter saddle horses are converted gaited horses, show- 
ing that there is no distinction in type except in their per- 
formance. 

The collected, springy, weight-carrying trot of the saddle 
horse should be distinguished from the extended, fast trot of the 
speed horse on the one hand, and the high acting, sometimes 
pounding, trot of the heavy harness horses on the other. 

Walk-trot-canter horses are referred to as hacks, and a dis- 
tinction is made between park and road hacks. The -former have 



60 



TYPES AND BREEDS 



the finish and style characteristic of all park horses, and arc 
usually saddle bred, while road hacks arc of a somewhat plainer 
but more serviceable stamp, capable of taking a run cross country 
in connection with a road ride, if desired. 

There is also a tendency to differentiate between the Saddle 
bred walk-trot-canter saddle horse and the one of Thoroughbred 
breeding and type. The former is characterized by high car- 




Fig. 51. — A steeple chaser, showing the speed type and saddle form of the running race horse. 



riage of head and tail, alleged to resemble that of a peacock, 
more knee and hock action and usually less substance — the latter 
by a more exclusively saddle form perhaps, but too often an 
erratic disposition and a low going trot, that are not conducive 
to either a safe or satisfactory ride (Fig. 54). Some most ac- 
ceptable representatives of the latter type have been brought 
out, however. Saddle horses are classified on the basis of height 
and the weight to which they are up. 



THE CLASSES OK HOUSES 



61 



Haulers are ridden to fox hounds, cross country, and, as a 
rule, with considerable weight up. In order to qualify they must, 
in addition to being able to carry weight, stay for long, hard 
runs, jump safely, and preferably in their stride, all common 
obstacles in the field, such as fences, walls, and ditches, and 
gallop fast enough to keep pace with the pack. They must also 




Fig. .52.— A gaited saddle stallion; one of the best representatives of this class, which is the 
most popular of any in the South and West but has met only limited favor in the East . 



have good heads in order not to become hot in company and run 
away through fences or into quarry holes. 

Tn order to meet these requirements, a horse must have all 
the features of the weight carrier conspicuous in his make-up, 
especially strong, well-developed shoulders and withers, mus- 
cular quarters, and ample bone ( Fig. 55). Quality is sacrificed 
to substance, but a hunter must show breeding and not appear 



62 



TYPES AND BREEDS 



cold. He is not good looking in the same sense as the park 
horse, bnt has, nevertheless, a most impressive appearance, as a 
horse of great resourcefulness and serviceability. Size is being 
more and more insistently demanded by buyers and users of 




Fig. 53. — A walk-trot-canter horse, showing the mold of form, the extreme refinement 
of head and neck, the peacocky carriage, the style and intelligence that are representative 
in highest degree of the American idea of a saddle horse of this class. 



hunters, and for apparently good reasons. In the first place, a 
five-foot jump is four inches lower for a 16-hand horse than for 
one of 15 hands height. Many hunting folk are in the sy,ort to 
keep down their weight, so that it takes a horse of some size 
to be up to the weight at which they ride. Finally, the big 



THE CLASSES OF HORSES 



63 




Fig. 54. — A class of English saddle horses, the Thoroughbred type predominating. 




Fig. 55. — A light-weight hunter having strong, well-developed, sloping shoulders, high 
withers extending well back, muscular quarters, ample bone, and sufficient breeding to 
insure the requisite courage, stamina, and pace. 



64 



TYPES AND BREEDS 



horse is claimed to give a safer ride <>u account of the momentum 
of his greater weight, insuring him a better chance of breaking 
through a fence in case of a blunder, instead of being tripped by 
it and coming down. 

Hunters are classified according to the weight they are 
capable of Carrying, as light weight, up to from 135 to 165 
pounds; middle weight, 165 to 190 pounds; and heavy weight, 
L90 pounds or over. A heavy weight hunter is shown as "a 




Fig. 56. — Heatherbloom, the world's record high jumper. 



weight carrier " ( Fig. 36). They are also classified as green 
or qualified, the latter having hunted one season with a pack 
recognized by the United -Hunts and Steeple Chase Association. 
All hunters are jumpers in some degree, but a high jumper 
is by no means necessarily a hunter. A jumper may clear six 
feet. at one time, and at another blunder over an ordinary post 
and rail fence, while t<> be a safe cross country horse he must 
be a consistent jumper of from 4 feet 6 inches to 5 feet only. 



THE CLASSES OF HORSES 



65 



The record high jump of Ileatherbloom, over 7 feet 9 inches, 
in 1903 still stands (Fig. 56). 

The use of hunters is not restricted to the hunting field, 
although the number demanded for that purpose alone is rapidly 
increasing with, the extension of the sport. Horses of this type 
are preferred by many who never ride to hounds, because they 
are most useful horses to ride and even to drive. 

The Combination Horse. — It is customary for all saddle 
horses, even some hunters, to go well in harness, but their forte, 




Fig. 57. 



-A combination horse, departing somewhat from the saddle type in being of a more 
"harnessy" form. 



nevertheless, is under " pigskin." There is, however, a combi- 
nation class of horses from which an equally good performance, 
either to ride or to drive, is expected (Fig. 57). 

Combination horses, although shown customarily in harness 
first, are more especially saddle horses that drive well than they 
are harness horses capable of giving a good ride. 

They are distinguished from saddle horses by being some- 
what more of a harness form and showing more speed at the trot, 
with good manners when driven. 



6G 



TYPES AND BREEDS 



A combination horse may go either the three or the five 
gaits under saddle, but those which walk, trot, and canter are 
usually driven in heavy harness, while those which are gaited 
are driven in light harness. 

The " fine harness " horse of the Southern shows, distinct 
from the " light harness " horse in that he has no speed but is 
a " model " horse capable of going ten or twelve miles an hour 
in the best form, is in reality a gaited saddle horse in harness 
(Fig. 58). 




Fig. 5S. — The fine harness horse of the South, a model of conformation, quality, style, and 

way of going. 



The Pony Division. — Generally speaking, any horse under 
14-2 is a pony, but diminutive stature alone does not constitute 
pony type. There is a distinct pony build or form, characterized 
as an exaggeration, in miniature, of either the draft or heavy 
harness types. An undersized light harness horse, for instance, 
would be a runt, not a pony. 

Ponies permit of classification into three groups : ( 1 ) Those 
conforming to the Shetland standard of a 46-inch limit, (2) those 
1 1-2 to 14-2 hands, and (3) the polo pony. 



THE CLASSES OF HORSES 



67 




Fig. 59. — A harness pony under 46 inches in height. 




Fig. 60. — A twelve-hand ride and drive pony of exceptional merit. 



68 



TYPES AND BREEDS 




--'.-.->,. 



■ ■. 



Fig. 61. — A pair of twelve-hand ponies properly turned out. 




TWIWMin— II IIIHimiHilMI I lllllWHillliWwBWffl 
Fig. 62.— A polo mount, fast, game, handy, intelligent, and up to weight. 



THE CLASSES OF HORSES 69 

Ponies not exceeding 46 inches should be of a miniature 
draft horse pattern, although a preference has been shown in 
American show rings for one with somewhat more refinement 
and action. These ponies are used almost exclusively for small 
children to ride and drive (Fig. 59). 

Ponies 11-2 and Not Exceeding 11^—2. — These ponies are 
pocket editions of the coach horse, as it were, or little cobs, well 
adapted to the use of youths and misses who may have graduated 
from the Shetlands (Figs. GO and 61). 

Polo mounts are race horses or hunters on a small scale, used 
chiefly to play the game (Fig. 62), although making very accept- 
able little hacks in case they are mallet shy, or for any other 
reason are kept out of the game. Cutting cattle and playing 
polo are very similar so far as the requirements of horses are 
concerned, and the type is practically identical, but as the cow 
pony seldom gets to market, class preference is given to the 
polo pony. A recent ruling of the Polo Association has in- 
creased the height limit of polo mounts from 14—2 to 15—1. 
They are henceforth, therefore, to be called polo mounts instead 
of ponies and some show classifications have already adopted 
this revision. 

REVIEW 

1. What is the distinction between a type and a class? 

2. Name the hard, solid colors and give examples of the influence of 

color on the market value of horses. 

3. Name the market classes of horses. 

4. Describe a typical expresser and give reasons for each feature. 

5. What is a cob ? 

6. What is required of a roadster besides speed ? 

7. Compare the performance of the park horse with that of a road 

horse. 

8. What are the chief distinctions between the gaited and the walk- 

trot-canter saddle horse? 

9. How does a hunter differ in appearance from a park saddle horse ? 
10. Describe what should distinguish a pony beside diminutive stature. 



CHAPTER VI 
THE BREEDS OF HORSES 

A breed is a group of individuals possessing distinctive char- 
acteristics not common to other members of the same species, 
these characteristics being sufficiently well fixed to be uniformly 
transmitted. It is these distinctive features which give to each 
breed its greater or less economic importance. Curiously enough, 
there is scarcely a breed which does not possess at least one dis- 
tinctive characteristic, in respect to which it surpasses all other 
breeds. 

In arriving at a fair conclusion of what constitutes " the 
best breed," it is necessary that conditions to be met and char- 
acters required be specified, as the same breed may not be " best " 
for each specific case. Too much importance should not be 
attached to the partisan favor in which different breeds are held. 
The average buyer of market horses has very little consideration 
for the particular breeds which may be represented in his pur- 
chases, yet striking uniformity of breed character among the 
lot which he selects may be manifested. This is due to the fact 
that the characters represented in the buyer's standard or ideal 
happen to be more typical of one breed than another. 

It has been noted recently that the accepted types of the 
draft breeds, for instance, are approaching more closely a 
common standard, as shown by show ring awards, but the desir- 
ability of such being the case is questionable. It is not well to 
lay too much stress on the minor features of breed type which 
have no utility value, but inasmuch as each breed has distinctive 
characteristics, rendering representatives of that breed espe- 
cially well adapted to particular requirements, their distinctive- 
ness should be retained. For instance, the Percheron breed has, 
from its inception, been characterized by features which could 
not be duplicated in any of the other breeds, and these features 
should not be sacrificed in favor of others which are character- 
istic of other breeds. 
70 



THE BREEDS OF HORSES 71 

The inherent qualities "of a breed have been pin there by one 
or more of three general agencies, therefore the possibilities in 
what can be gotten out of a breed are as definitely determined as 
is the character of a horse's get fixed by his ancestry. The three 
factors determining breed characteristics and, through them, the 
economic importance of the different breeds are : 

1. The origin in blood which constitutes the hereditary force 
with which the breed is endowed. 

2. The environment by which these blood lines have been 
molded. 

3. The purpose for which they have been bred, constituting 
the ideal to which the breeders have selected. 

The study of the breeds should, therefore, resolve itself into 
a consideration of the following essentials : 

1. Origin: (a) In blood. (6) Geographical. 

2. Development: (a) Men. (b) Methods. 

3. History: (a) Men. (6) Events, (c) Dates. 

4. Characteristics : Breed types. 

5. Economic importance. 

Foundation Stock. — The origin in blood is of greatest his- 
torical interest, if not the most important, of the factors which 
determine breed characters. The modem breeds have been more 
or less composite in their origin, involving, to a greater or less 
degree, those breeds or stocks which had already attained distinc- 
tion on account of merit. In some cases, the combination of 
blood lines was intentional, but it was more often incidental or 
even accidental. These historic horses can in turn be traced to a 
more limited group of common ancestors and so on until the 
blood lines focus in but a very few basic stocks. 

Darwin believed all races had descended from one common 
ancestry, and attributed the extreme differences noted between 
modern breeds to environment. The more commonly accepted 
theory has been that all modern breeds trace their origin in 
blood directly or indirectly to one or all of three primordial 
stocks, the Wild Black Horse of Flanders, the Oriental Horse, 
and the native pony stock indigenous to Northern Europe and 
Asia. The latter lias played a more or less important part. 

The Flemish horse was native to what is now a part of 



72 TYPES AND BREEDS 

France, Belgium, Holland, and Germany. The country was 
generally low lying, and therefore conducive to a coarse, rank, 
luxuriant growth of vegetation. The horse developed thereon 
partook of the same general nature. The Flanders horse was 
characterized by : First, his huge size and bulk ; second, his gen- 
eral coarseness; third, his uniformly black color; fourth, his 
profusion of hair, showing in heavy mane, tail, feather and even 
a moustache, and tufts on the anterior face of knees and points 
of hocks ; fifth, his sluggish, lymphatic temperament. 

The Oriental horse, native to the desert regions of Northern 
Africa and later found in Arabia and Asia Minor, was charac- 
terized by extreme refinement, beauty of form, grace of move- 
ment, speed, stamina, spirit, intelligence, and an active, nervous 
temperament. The so-called Oriental Group was said to consist 
of the Barb, Turk, and Arabian. 

Recent researches of Professor J. Cossar Ewart, of the Uni- 
versity of Edinburgh, and Professor William Ridgeway, of 
Cambridge, have shown that the fountain source was not reached 
in either the Flemish horse or the so-called Oriental Group. 
Ridgeway concludes that all horses can be traced to one or more 
of three original stocks: the Libyan horse of Northern Africa, 
of which pure Barbs and Arabs are typical ; the common horse 
of Upper Asia and Europe, represented by the Mongolian pony, 
and the Celtic pony of Northwestern Europe. 

Origin- of Thoroughbred. — He traces the Thoroughbred, 
through his alleged Barb, Turk, and Arab ancestors, to Libya, 
in Northern Africa, where he establishes a definite origin, about 
1000 B.C.,, in a horse characterized by a bay color, sometimes 
accompanied by body, leg and even head stripes, a dark colored 
skin, white markings, as a star, a blaze, and pasterns or " brace- 
lets," a short, fine head, well-carried ears, a peculiar depression 
in the skull just in front of the orbits, a light, fine, high-set tail, 
the total absence of chestnuts on the hind legs, and either ab- 
sence or small size of the ergots at the fetlocks an unusually 
long hoof, extremely docile disposition, a refined, expressive 
voice, and great speed. 

Origin of Other Horses. — Ridgeway also establishes a small, 
coarse, thick set, short necked, plain headed, big boned, light 



THE BREEDS OF HORSES 73 

colored, slow but hardy pony of Upper Asia and Europe as the 
original progenitor of all other horses, except those which have 
resulted from a blending of these two, and the Black Flanders 
horse is shown to have such an origin. 

In 1902 Professor Ewart described what he called a " Celtic 
pony," a true pony and not a dwarf horse. It has a small head, 
with prominent eyes, small ears, a heavy mane, slender legs, 
small joints, well-formed, small hoofs, and " tail lock." 

ARABIAN 

No race of horses has enjoyed a more sentimental popularity 
nor had its history more obscured by myth and tradition than 
the Arab (Fig. 63). It is only comparatively recently that any 
very definite information concerning them has been available. 
Arabs have been considered in a general way as the original 
source of the best blood, but this is not the case. There is every 
reason to believe that horses similar to the best Arabs were in 
Northern Africa more than one thousand years before horses 
were known in Arabia. Their introduction was apparently from 
Africa and took place some time between the first and the sixth 
century. 

The number of good horses in Arabia is much smaller than 
is generally supposed, and these are chiefly in the hands of cer- 
tain families or tribes in the interior desert. The rank and file 
of the horses in the hands of the common people are either the 
common bred Kurdish ponies, descendants of the original Euro- 
pean stock or the produce of these by true Arab sires. The .Vial) 
proper, a descendant and not an antecedent of the original 
Libyan horse, is known as the Kohl breed, so named on account 
of the peculiar blue black or antimony tint which characterizes 
the skin of the body. The breed is composed of five strains 
which, in turn, are believed by the Bedouins to be derived from 
a single mare, named Kelie'det Ajuz, and the most prominent 
strain is named Keheilan, after her. They are mostly bays, 
the fastest of any, and resemble most closely the English 
Thoroughbred. The Darlri/ Arabian, the greatest foundation 
sire of the Thoroughbred, was of this strain. The others are 



74 



TYPES AND BREEDS 



the Seglawi, " powerful and fast, but not particularly hand- 
some"; the Abeyan, generally the handsomest but small, and 
resembles the Thoroughbred least ; the Hamdaini; and the H ad- 
ban. Collectively, the strains are termed Al Khamseh and are 
extensively interbred. 

There is much confusion in this country concerning the char- 
acteristic color of the Arab. Almost any odd color or marking, 
such as pure white, piebald, skewbald, leprous or tiger spots, are 
attributed to Arab blood. On the other hand, such significance 
of any of these colors has been absolutely denied. As a matter of 
fact, bay with white markings is most characteristic, and, in the 




Fig. 63. — Arabian stallion, showing the general refinement characteristic of this breed. 



light of recent knowledge concerning the origin of the Arab in 
the Libyan horse, is most desirable. Grays are also common, 
chestnuts and browns are not uncommon, while blacks and even 
pure whites are found. It is true, too, that the whites usually 
show the Kohl spots about the eyes, muzzle, and elsewhere. 
While the odd colors referred to as suggesting Arab breeding are 
never found among pure bred Arabs, they are noted among their 
half breeds, the piebalds and skewbalds, especially, occurring 
with a considerable degree of uniformity when the common stock 
of Upper Asia and Europe is crossed with Arab sires. This is 
shown in the piebald ponies of Thibet, Sumatra, Iceland, the 



THE BREEDS OF HORSES 75 

Faroe Islands, Java, India, and in our original American range 
ponies, which were not many generations removed from an 
Oriental foundation. The line back is another feature which is 
marked in the various shades of dun, cream, and mouse color of 
half-bred Arabians. 

THE BARB 

There are many horses in the Barbary States of Northern 
Africa which are not true Barbs. Pure bred Barbs are found 
only in Morocco, where there has been no introduction of foreign 
blood, as has been done in the other States, where horses from 
France and England, in Algiers especially, Arabs from Syria, 
and the common-bred Italian horses have been crossed with the 
native Barbs. It is, of course, assumed that the pure Barb is 
the direct descendant of the original Libyan horse. 

Description. — The Barb is described as being from 14 to 15 
hands in height, body comparatively short in proportion to 
length of legs, his whole form being conducive to speed. The 
head is well proportioned, with a fine ear, broad, full forehead, 
large, clear, prominent eye flashing fire and yet expressing in- 
telligence, a deep jowl with open angles, a trim muzzle, and a 
nostril that is thin at the margin, capable of great dilation and 
continually in play. The head is well set on a long, high crested 
neck, well cut out in the throttle, and giving the head a lofty 
carriage ; shoulders well laid in and sloping, well set up at the 
withers; a. round, doe]) rib; a somewhat drooping croup but 
high-set tail ; straight hind legs, long pasterns, and rather deep, 
narrow feet of the most superior texture of horn. The charac- 
teristic bay with white markings indicates the pure Barb, an 
out-cross introducing browns, chestnuts, blacks, and grays. 

THE TURK 

The significance of this name applies, generally, to the horses 
of Turkey in Asia, there being but few horses in European 
Turkey. Originally, these consisted of Turcoman and Kurdis- 
tan ponies, representatives of the common Northern Asia and 
European stock. These were later, however, extensively inter- 
bred and improved with Arabs, so that it is probable that the 



76 TYPES AND BREEDS 

Turks referred to in Thoroughbred history were of this 
breeding. 

The influence of the so-called Oriental blood has been well 
extended. The Darlev Arabian, Byerly Turk, and Godolphin 
Barb, with the Barb or Royal mares, are considered the real 
foundation of the Thoroughbred. 

The Percheron owes much to the Oriental sires with which 
the native French mares were mated. Gallipoli and Godolphin 
were two of the most important of these sires. 

The Norfolk trotter was the result of mating Barbs with 
the black trotters of Friesland. The Cleveland Bay represents 
a Barb- Yorkshire cart horse cross. 

Bars I, progenitor of the Russian OrlofT, was three genera- 
tions removed from Smetanxa, a. gray Arabian imported into 
Russia. The Prussian Trakehner is derived from an admixture 
of Oriental and Thoroughbred blood with the native stock of the 
country. 

In America, imported Grand Bashaw, a Barb brought from 
Tripoli, founded through his immediate descendants the Clay, 
Patchen and Bashaw families. Leopard, an Arab, and Linden 
Tree, a Barb, presented to General Grant, were used by Ran- 
dolph Huntingdon in his creation of the Clay Arabian. Zil- 
eaadi, an Arab from Turkey, sired the dam of Golddust, the 
founder of the Morgan family of that name. 

THE THOROUGHBRED 

Thoroughbred is the proper name of the English running race 
horse breed, and any other application of the term to horses is 
incorrect. It should not be confused nor used synonymously 
with " pure bred," the adjective employed to denote the absence 
of any alien blood in the ancestry. 

It is not probable, in view of what we know of the history of 
horses in Great Britain, that the origin of the Thoroughbred was 
of Oriental blood exclusively, although their lineage has been 
carefully guarded for so long that all trace of the common stock 
of the country, if any ever existed, has long since been bred out, 
and they are therefore truly " thoroughbred." 



THE BREEDS OF HORSES 77 

The principal foundation to which the Thoroughbred traces 
consists of the Barb or Royal mares, imported by Charles Second 
(1660 to 1685), and the Darley Arabian, a pure Anazah, im- 
ported in 1706 ; the Bycrly Turk, imported in 1689, and Godol- 
phin Barb, brought from Paris in 1721. The latter had been 
working in a water cart, a discard, no' doubt, from the stable of 
some member of the nobility to whom he had been presented, as 
was commonly the custom. 

There are prominent families in the Thoroughbred and 
derived breeds which can be traced direct to each of these sires. 
Eclipse, the most conspicuous individual in the history of the 
English turf; Blaze, the foundation Hackney sire, and Messen- 
ger, the progenitor of the American Standardised, were respec- 
tively four, three and six generations removed from the Darley 
Arabian. King Herod, a great race horse, was a line descendant, 
of the Byerly Turk, and Matchem, a noted race horse and sire, 
was a grandson of Godolphin Barb. It has been stated that the 
American bred Thoroughbreds are, as a rule, closer to their 
Oriental ancestry than the English Thoroughbreds and that they 
follow their type more closely. 

Early Racing. — While the real era of Thoroughbred breed- 
ing is usually considered to have begun with the importation by 
Charles Second, horse racing of a primitive character was re- 
ported in the latter half of the twelfth century. The first real 
race was run in 1377, between Richard Second and the Earl of 
Arundel. Henry the Eighth was the first king to maintain a 
racing stable of his own, and the English sovereigns since that 
time have been enthusiastic patrons of the turf. 

Through these centuries of breeding the most ligid selection 
has been practised, turf performance alone being the standard. 
Customs of conducting races and the types of horses that could 
win have undergone considerable modification within recent 
generations, however. Prior to 1880 it was customary to ran 
four mile heats and carry top weight, while the present system 
is to sprint short distances under close handicaps, starting as 
two-year-olds and campaigning for entire seasons. 

Thoroiiglibreds were introduced into this country by the 
English colonists in Old Dominion, and the Thoroughbred sen- 



78 



TYPES AND BREEDS 



timent is still strongest there, especially in Virginia. The first 
Thoroughbred of note to be imported was Diomed, the winner of 
the first English Derby, the classic race in England. He was 
brought over in 1797. In a straight line of descent from Diomed 
came Sir Archy, the first truly American Thoroughbred ; Boston 
his grandson, conceded to have been the greatest American race 
horse, and his son Lexington, a scarcely less remarkable per- 
former than Boston and a most influential sire, figuring in 
American Standardised and Saddle families as well as in the 
Thoroughbred. 




Fig. 64. — A Thoroughbred stallion, the sire of race horses. 

Description. — The Thoroughbred represents the speed type 
in the extreme, and, having been the first breed improved, their 
distinctive characters are well marked (Fig. 64). Most char- 
acteristic are the extreme refinement; the small, well propor- 
tioned head ; clearly defined features ; straight face line ; neat 
ear ; fine throttle ; sloping shoulders ; well-made withers, mus- 
cular thighs and quarters ; straight hind legs ; usually slightly 
bucked knees ; oblique pasterns ; and a rather small foot of dense 
horn. Their way of going is especially characterized by being 
low and pointing at the walk and trot, but perfection at the 



THE BREEDS OF HORSES 79 

gallop or run. Their temperament is naturally racy, of such a 
highly nervous organization as to cause them to become " hot " 
and erratic. 

Bay and chestnut with more or less white markings are the 
common colors, although black, gray, and white were frequenl 
among the early Thoroughbreds. Typical Thoroughbred weight 
is about 1000 pounds, and they stand from 15 to 16 hands high. 
Sir Walter Gilbey estimates an average increase of 1 hand 21/2 
inches from 1700 to 1900, 15-21/0 being the average at the 
present time. 

Relation to Other Breeds. — This breed is of the greatest his- 
toric importance. It was the first breed improved, and barring 
the Oriental from which it is derived it has the purest blood 
lines. For it the first studbook was established. Having been 
the first breed improved, the blood of the Thoroughbred has been 
most freely used in the improvement of other breeds and types. 
In all but the draft breeds the influence of the Thoroughbred may 
be demonstrated. In the heavy harness division the foundation 
blood lines are significant. The Hackney descend? from Shales, 
the son of Blaze, a Thoroughbred, out of a common mare of 
Norfolk. The French demi sang refers to the cross of the 
Thoroughbred on French mares. Thoroughbreds are used ex- 
tensively in German studs, the Prussian Trakehner being pro- 
duced from both Thoroughbred and Oriental sires. The York- 
shire Coach horse represents a Thoroughbred-Cleveland Bay 
cross. The three most important foundation sires of American 
horses, Messenger, Justin Morgan, and Denmark, are credited 
with Thoroughbred pedigrees. In addition, the majority of 
hunters and polo ponies, as w T ell as a great many saddle horses, 
are clean or part bred. 

The greatest value of the Thoroughbred as foundation stock 
has no doubt passed, as the breeds which have been evolved from 
a Thoroughbred foundation have been improved along their 
respective lines to a point where an out-cross to the Thorough- 
bred might be a step backward, although Thoroughbred ancestors 
are within a very few generations of some of the most noted and 
successful Hackney, French Coach, Saddle and even Standard- 
bred sires. 



80 



TYPES AND BREEDS 



There is a strong prejudice against the Thoroughbred in 
some parts of this country, where he is looked upon merely as a 
racing machine. But any one familiar with the stamp of horse 
bred in Virginia, for instance, will recognize in the blood of the 
Thoroughbred a breeding leaven, which judiciously and intelli- 
gently used produces most desirable results. 

When breeders of the Thoroughbred practice selection to 
saddle rather than to race horse requirements, with good dispo- 




'hbred stallion .suitable t. 



sition, size, shape, and substance as the features sought, this 
breed will not be so exclusively dependent on the status of the 
racing game for patronage. 

" Blood " is a term frequently used to indicate Thoroughbred 
breeding; " of the blood," " blood like," and " blood horse," all 
refer to the Thoroughbred. This being the blood and this breed 
being altogether of it, horses carrying but a fractional percentage 
are designated as part bred and the number of parts are specified 
as two, or half bred, in the case of the get of a Thoroughbred 



THE BREEDS OF HORSES 



81 



sire, out of a. common bred mare; three parts or three-quarters 
being 1 used to designate the get of a Thoroughbred out of a half 
bred mare. The blood is accounted for in this way even up to 
seven-eighths. 

Record of Best Performances on the Running Turf. 



Distance. Name, Age, and Weight. 



14 mile 

% mile 

33/2 furlongs. 
y 2 mile 

4}^ furlongs. 

% mile 

5}i furlongs. 

*Futurity c. . 

6 furlongs. . . 

&}4 furlongs. 

7 furlongs. . . 
7}4 furlongs. 



1 mile . 



1 m. 20 yds. 

1 m. 40 yds. 

1 m. 50 yds. 
1 m. 70 vds. 
1 m.100 yds. 

1 1-16 miles. 

1% miles. 
1 3-16 miles 
1}4 miles 
1 5-16 miles. 
1 m. 500 yds 
1% miles 

1H 



Wa. 
1% 
2 



miles 
miles 
miles 
miles 
miles 



2 1-16 miles 
2% miles 



2% 
2V 2 
2% 
2% 
3 



miles 
miles 
miles 
miles 
miles. 

miles. 



Bob Wade, 4 

Atoka, aged, 103 lbs 

Colisse, 2, 123 lbs 

Geraldine, 4, 122 lbs 

f Preceptor, 2, 112 lbs 

t Joe Morris, 2, 103 lbs 

Maid Marian, 4, 111 lbs 

( Plater, 2, 107 lbs 

\ Fern L., 3, 92 lbs 

Kingston, aged, 139 lbs 

f Artful, 2, 130 lbs 

t Prince Ahmed, 5, 117 lbs.. . . 

' Priscillian, 5, 113 lbs 

Lady Vera, 2, 90 lbs 

Brookdale Nymph, 4, 124 lbs. 

j Roseben, 5, 126 lbs 

1 Colin, 2, 122 lbs 

Restigouche, 3, 107 lbs 

f Salvator, 4, 110 lbsf 

Kildeer, 4, 91 lbs 

Kiamesha, 3, 104 lbs 

Dick Welles, 3, 112 lbs 

Fern L., 3, 80 lbs 

[ Bourbon Beau, 3, 112 lbs.. . . 

Macy, 4, 107 lbs 

Maid Marian, 4, 106 lbs. . . . 
Six Shooter, 5, 111 lbs 

/Preen, 4, 104 lbs 

( Main Chance, 3, 114 lbs. . . . 

Vox Populi, 4, 104 lbs 

Bubbling Water, 4, 121 lbs 

Rapid Water, 6, 114 lbs 

' Royal Tourist, 3, 104 lbs.. . . 

Green Seal, 4, 109 lbs 

Gretna Green, 5, 100 lbs. . . . 

(Charles Edward, 3, 126 lbs. . 

t Green Seal, 4, 107 lbs 

Scintillant II., 6, 109 lbs 

f Broomstick, 3, 104 lbs 

1 Olambala, 4, 122 lbs 

Ballot, 4, 126 lbs 

Swift Wing, 5, 100 lbs 

Irish Lad, 4, 125 lbs 

Goodrich, 3, 102 lbs 

Fitz Herbert, 3, 122 lbs 

Major Daingerfield, 4, 120 lbs. . 

Orcagna, 4, 96 lbs 

Everett, 4, 107 lbs 

War Whoop, 4, 96 lbs 

Joe Murphv, 4, 99 lbs 

Ethelbert, 4, 124 lbs 

Kyrat, 3, S8 lbs 

Ten Broeck, 4, 104 lbs 

Hubbard, 4, 107 lbs 

Mamie Algol, 5, 108 lbs 

f Lucrezia Borgia, 4, 85 lbsf. . 

( Messenger Boy, 5, 106 lbs. . . 



Place. 



Butte, Mont 

Butte, Mont 

Juarez, Mexico 

Morris Park (st. c.) . . 
Belmont Park (st. c.) . 
Louisville (C. Downs). 
Morris Park (st. c.) . . 
Morris Park (st. c.) . . 

Seattle, Wash'n 

Sheeps'd B. (C.I.J. C.) 
Morris Park (st. c.) . . 
Empire City, N. Y. . . 

Hamilton, Ont 

Belm'tP., L. I. (st. c.) 
Belmont Park, L. I.. . 
Belmont Park, L. I.. . 
Belm'tP., L. I. (st. c.) 
Belmont Park, L. I.. . 
Monmouth P. (st. c.) 
Monmouth P. (st. c.) 
Belmont Park, L. I.. . 
Chicago (Harlem). . . . 

Seattle, Wash'n 

Juarez, Mexico 

Chicago (Wash. Park) 
Chicago (Wash. Park) 
Chicago (Wash. Park) 

Buffalo, N. Y 

Buffalo, N. Y 

Seattle, Wash'n 

Oakland, Cal 

Oakland (Cal. J. C.).. 

Oakland, Cal 

Seattle, Wash'n 

Fort Erie, Ont 

Brighton Beach 

Seattle, Wash'n 

Chicago (Harlem).. . . 

Brighton Beach 

Sheepsh'd Bay (C.I.) 
Sheepsh'd Bay (C.I.) 

Latonia, Kv 

Sheepsh'd Bay (C.I.) 
Chicago (Wash. Park) 
Sheepsh'd Bay (C.I.) 
Morris Park, N. Y. . . 

Oakland, Cal 

Pimlico, Md 

Ontario (Tor'to J. C). 
Chicago (Harlem). . . . 
Brighton Beach, N.Y. 

Newport, Ky 

Lexington, Ky 

Saratoga, N. Y 

New Orleans (Citv P.) 
Oakland (Cal. J. C.).. 
Louisville, Ky 



Date. Time 



Aug. 20 
Sept. 7 
Jan. 17 
Aug. 30 
May 19 
May 8 
Oct. 9 
Oct. 21 
Aug. 8 
June 22 
Oct. 15 
July 29 
June 19 
Oct. 19 
Oct. 14 
Oct. 16 
Oct. 16 
May 29 
Aug. 28 
Aug. 13 
Oct. 9 
Aug. 14 
Aug. 15 
Feb. 14 
July 2 
July 19 
June 27 
June 16 
June 29 
Sept. 5 
Nov. 30 
Nov. 30 
Nov. 11 
Sept. 12 
Aug. 28 
July 16 
Aug. 20 
Sept. 1 
Julv 9 
July 2 
Julv 1 
Julv 8 
June 25 
July 16 
July 13 
Oct. 3 
Mar. 2 
Oct. 31 
Sept 23 
Aug. 30 
Aug. 4 
Nov. 1 
Sept. 16 
Aug. 9 
Feb. 16 
May 20 
Oct 



, 1890. 
, 1906. 
, 1911. 
, 18.S9. 
, 1908. 
, 1909. 
, 1894. 
, 1902. 
, 1908. 
, 1891. 
, 1904. 
, 1909. 
, 1911. 
, 1906. 
, 1907. 
, 1906. 
, 1907. 
, 1908. 
, 1890. 
, 1892. 
, 1905. 
, 1903. 
, 1908. 
, 1912. 
, 1898. 
, 1903. 
, 1903. 
, 1906. 
, 1907. 
, 1908. 
, 1910. 
, 1907. 
, 1908. 
, 1908. 
, 1909. 
, 1907. 
, 1908. 
, 1902. 
, 1904. 
, 1910. 
, 1908. 
, 1905. 
, 1904. 
, 1898. 
, 1909. 
, 1903. 
, 1909. 
, 1910. 
, 1905. 
, 1894. 
, 1900. 
. 1899. 
,1876, 
, 1873. 
, 1907. 
, 1897. 
, 1911. 



0.21 J* 

:;:;'., 

0.39 2-5 

0.46 

0.51 

0.52 4-5 

0.56% 

1.02^ 

1.05 

1.08 

1.08 

1.11 

1.11 

1.16 3-5 
1.172-5 
1.22 
1.23 
1.31 1-5 
1.35^ 
1.37H 
1.37 2-5 
1.37 2-5 
1.37 2-5 
1.37 2-5 
1.40 
1.40 
1.40 
1.42 
1.42 
1.40 4-5 

1.42 1-5 
1.44 1-5 
1.44 1-5 
1.44 2-5 

1.43 3-5 
1.50 3-5 
1.50 3-5 
1.57 2-5 
2.02 4-5 
2.02 4-5 

2.09 3-5 

2.10 1-5 

2.17 3-5 
2.30M 
2.45 
2.57 
3.173-5 
3.25 3-5 
3.34J^ 
3.42 
3.49 1-5 
4.24^ 
4.58J4 
4.58% 
5.19 
7.11 
7.14 1-5 



*170 feet less than % mile. 

6 



t Races against time. 



St. c, straight course. 



82 



TYPES AND BREEDS 
Heat Races. 



DlST. 



J^ mile. 
% mile. 

}/2 mile. 

% mile. 

% mile. 

1 mile. 
1 (3 in 5) 
1 1-16 m. 
l 1 ^ miles. 

1 >4 miles. 
1A miles. 

2 miles. 

3 miles. 

4 miles. 



Name, Age, and Weight. 



Sleepv Dick, aged 

Bob Wade, 4 

f Eclipse, Jr., 4 

■{ Bogus, aged, 113 lbs. 

(.Bill Howard, 5, 122 lbs.. 

f Kittie Pease, 4, 82 lbs 

t Fox, 4, 113 lbs 

1 Tom Haves, 4, 107 lbs. . . 

1 Lizzie S., 5, 118 lbs, 

Guido, 4, 117 lbs 

L' Argentine, 5, 115 lbs 

Slipalong, 5, 115 lbs 

What-er-Lou, 5, 119 lbs 

Glenmore, 5, 114 lbs 

Patsy Duff v, aged, 115 lbs.. 
Miss Woodford, 4, 107M lbs 

Norfolk, 4, 100 lbs 

Glenmore, 4, 108 lbs 



Place. 



Kiowa, Kan 

Butte, Mont 

Dallas, Tex 

Helena, Mont 

Anaconda, Mont. . . 

Dallas, Tex 

San Francisco, Cal. 
Morris Park (st. c.) . 

Louisville 

Chicago (Wash.Pk.) 

St. Louis 

Chicago (Wash.Pk.) 
San Fran.(Ingleside) 
Sheepshead Bay. . . 
Sacramento, Cal . . 
Sheepshead Bay.. . 
Sacramento, Cal. . 
Baltimore, Pimlico. 



Date. 



Oct. 19, 
Aug. 16, 
Nov. 1, 
Aug. 22, 
Aug. 17, 
Nov. 2, 
Oct. 31, 
June 17, 
Sept. 28, 
July 11, 
June 14, 
Sept. 2, 
Feb. 18, 
Sept. 25, 
Sept. 17, 
Sept. 20, 
Sept. 23, 
Oct. 25, 



1888. 
1890. 
1890. 
1888. 
1895. 
1887. 
1891. 
1892. 
1883. 
1891. 
1879. 
1885. 
1889. 
1880. 
1884. 
1884. 
lsc,.-, 
1879. 



Time. 



0.2VA -0 
0.36 M -0 
0.48^0.48- 
0.48 -0. 
0A7 l A -0 
1.00 -1 
1.00 3-5-1 
1.10H -1 
1.13M -1 
\Al l A -1 
1.43-1.44- 
1.51^ -1 
1.56 
2.10 
2.41M 
3.33 
5.27^ 
7.30M 



22 H 

36M 

0.4 

.48 

48^ 

.00 

.01 1-5 

.125* 

• 13}<£ 

.41 

-1.47% 

asv 2 

.54% 
.14 
.41 
.33M 
29M 
.31 



The English Derby, Epsom Downs — (English Turf.) 
(Distance, about 1% miles, run since 1788.) 



Year. 


Owner and Winner. 


Sire. 


Time. 


Second. 


1904.. . 
1905. . . 
1906. . . 
1907... 
1908. . . 
1909... 
1910... 
1911... 
1912... 


Leopold de Rothschild's St. Amant 

Maj. Loeder's Spearmint 

Richard Croker's Orby 

King Edward's Minoru 

J. B. Joel's Sunstar 


St. Frusquin . 

Carbine 

Orme 

Chaleureux. . . 

Cyllene 

Sunbridge. . . . 
Cyllene 


2.45 4-5 
2.39 3-5 
2.36 4-5 
2.44 
2.39 4-5 
2.42 2-5 

2.35 1-5 

2.36 4-5 
2.38 4-5 


John O'Gaunt. 

Jardy. 

Picton. 

Slieve Gallion. 

Primer. 

Louviers. 

Greenback. 

Steadfast. 

Jaegar. 



On June 28, 1913, Whisk Broom 2d, owned by Harry Payne 
Whitney, established a new tnrf record when he won the Subur- 
ban handicap at a mile and a quarter in two minutes flat, carry- 
ing the heavy impost of 139 pounds. He was ridden by Notter. 

It is a noteworthy fact that the record price for which any 
horse has ever been sold was paid for a Thoroughbred. A French 
racing man, Edmund Blanc, gave $200,000 for the ten-year-old 
English Thoroughbred stallion, White Knight. Previous record 
prices were $196,875 for Flying Fox, $157,500 each for Cyllene 
and Diamond Jubilee, and $156,250 for Ormonde. Rocksand 
has recently been exported from this country at a price of 
$150,000. 



THE BREEDS OF HORSES 83 

CLASSIFICATION OF BREEDS 

Breeds may be classified according to the type to which their 
representatives conform, as: 

Draft Breeds. — Percheron, Belgian, Clydesdale, Shire, and 
Suffolk. 

Heavy Harness Breeds. — Hackney, Yorkshire Coach, Cleve^ 
land Bay, French Coach, German Coach, and Russian Orloff. 

Light Harness Breed.— American Standardised. 

Saddle Breeds. — Thoroughbred, American Saddle Horse and 
Arabian. 

Ponies. — Shetland, Welsh, and Hackney. 

REVIEW 

1. What is a breed? And of what importance are breeds'? 

2. What are the three factors that determine breed characteristics? 

3. What are the essential things to consider in a study of the breeds? 

4. What have been considered as the foundation stocks from which all 

breeds have had their origin? 

5. What additional light have the investigations of Ewart and Ridge- 

way thrown on this subject? 
(i. What are the most important facts concerning the horses in Arabia? 
7. To what extent may color indicate Arab blood? 
S. Review the important facts in the history of the Thoroughbred. 
9. Discuss the Thoroughbred in its relation to other breeds. 
10. What are the possibilities of the Thoroughbred at the present time? 



CHAPTER VII 

DRAFT BREEDS 

The breeds of draft horses here considered are the Percheron, 
the Belgian, the Clydesdale, the Shire, and the Suffolk. 

THE PEBCHEKON 

France affords an example of the community system of 
breeding. While the production of the different types of horses 
is extensively practiced in the country at large, the breeders of 
different districts are devoting themselves to the production of 
one type more or less exclusively, with the result that many a 
horse breeding section is noted for a class of horses distinctive 
of and bearing the name of that community. Thus, we have the 
Percheron of LaPerche, the Boulonnaise from that part of the 
country contiguous to Boulogne, the Nivernais of Xievre, the 
Ardennwise of Ardennes, and others. 

In America, by common consideration and studbook regis- 
tration the Percheron is distinguished from the other French 
draft breeds collectively. In France, both the Percheron and 
Boulonnaise are represented by studbook associations. 

LaPerche is a district comprising about three thousand square 
miles, situated in the northern or inland part of Normandy. It 
has a country-wide reputation for its grass land and the horses 
produced thereon. 

Flemish blood predominated in what may be regarded as the 
native stock of France. On this cold blood base, repeated top 
crosses of Oriental blood were made, the relative proportions of 
hot and cold blood varying in the case of the different French 
breeds. 

The foundation of the Percheron was composed of the Nor- 
man descendants of the original Flemish stock, mated with 
Oriental stallions, these crosses being either incidental to cur- 
rent events or made with a definite purpose in view. They had 
a most important significance in determining the type of horse 
84 



DRAFT BREEDS 85 

which the Perchemn was to be. When the Saracens invaded 
France in 732 and were defeated by Charles Martel, the Orien- 
tal horses upon which they were mounted, mostly stallions, fell 
into the hands of the Franks and were eventually, by this means, 
distributed throughout the different parts of the country. The 
successful Crusaders also brought back with them entire horses, 
as the spoils of war, and here was a direct though unintentional 
infusion of Oriental blood. 

Later when the desirable effect of this Oriental top cross was 
manifested, there were more or less systematic importations of 
Oriental sires, the most notable of which was Gallipoli, a gray 
horse, introduced from the Orient in 1820, whose impress on 
the horses of the country, especially through his grandson Jean 
Le Blanc, was most marked. 

Good grass and selection are the other factors chiefly respon- 
sible for the Percherons we have to-day. LaPerche is world- 
famed as a grazing district. 

Early Service. — The service in which the Percheron first 
attained distinction was as a stage-coach horse, in the ante-rail- 
road days, when all freight and express as well as passengers 
were moved in this way (Figs. 66 and 67). It was a rapid 
draft job, hauling loads at an eight mile clip for long and hard 
stages. An ordinary road horse could not pull the load, while 
an ordinary draft horse could not stand the pace nor the dis- 
tance. The breeders of LaPerche specialized in the production 
of this type of horse, and their success marked the beginning of 
Percheron popularity (Fig. 68). 

The advent of railroads in the nineteenth century struck a 
telling blow at the diligence or stage-coach horse. At this crisis 
the French breeders displayed a foresight that might well be 
emulated by horse breeders of the present motor period. Instead 
of howling calamity and defaming the locomotive, they had fore- 
sight enough to perceive a new era of agricultural production 
on the one hand and of commercial traffic on the other, which 
had never before been possible, and which would require horses 
in greater numbers than ever. But the nature of service in the 
new field created essentially by the locomotive and railway train 
would require horses of quite a different stamp than had pre- 



86 



TYPES AND BREEDS 




( 7 



DRAFT BREEDS 



87 




88 TYPES AND BREEDS 

viously been produced in LaPerche ; the loads to be moved would 
be greater, the distance less, and time allowance more liberal. 
The true draft horse was to supersede the old " diligence " type, 
but even in their efforts to meet the demand for a horse of greater 
weight and power, the LaPerche breeders did not lose sight of 
the desirable characteristics of hot blood derivation, and so far 
as they were correlated with the increase in size and draftiness, 
attributes of the cold parent stock, they were retained. To this 




Fig. 68. — An old-fashioned Pereheron, a rapid draft horse of a 
type evolved in the diligence service. 

may be attributed the most distinctive features of the present 
Pereheron. 

Distinctive Features. — He may attain ton weight and yet 
possess a refinement of head and neck, a general suppleness of 
form, a texture of bone and hoof, a degree of quality and finish 
throughout, together with an energetic, yet perfectly tractable, 
temperament and disposition, not equalled in any of the other 
draft breeds. Furthermore, the typical Pereheron bears his 
great weight with an airiness and boldness that is unusual. 



DRAFT BREEDS 



89 



But to the same source may be charged some of his deficien- 
cies. He is sometimes too fine, not sufficiently drafty in scale 
or form, and too hot in disposition to qualify, acceptably, for the 
heaviest draft work. 

The features by which the Percherons (Fig. 69) may be 
most readily distinguished from representatives of other draft 
breeds, reckoned on the basis of averages, are size, fully up to 
draft requirements but hardly equal to that of the Shire and 




Fig. 69. 



-A Percheron stallion, showing the breed character, the form, 
and the color that are most typically Percheron. 



Belgian; form, that is somewhat more up-standing, more 
rounded in contour, less square ended and blocky, at all events 
not as squatty as in the Belgian, although he is not a leggy, light 
quartered liorse; head of good proportions, sharply defined fea- 
tures, prominent, full, bright eyes, rather neat ear, a fair length 
of neck, well finished in crest and throttle ; bone of good texture 
but in some cases too fine, as determined by popular standard : 
canons devoid of feather; well-formed feet, of medium size and 
of the very best texture of blue horn. 



90 TYPES AND BREEDS 

Color is gray or black most commonly, the former more typi- 
cal and growing in favor, as expressed in the demand, although 
bays, browns, chestnuts, and even roans are encountered. 

Way of going is not more accurate, but manifests a snap and 
boldness not displayed by draft horses as a rule. 

Respects in which some Percherons are not strong and to the 
correction of which conscientious and intelligent breeders are 
giving their attention are the set of the hind legs, the conforma- 
tion of the hocks, and the slope of the pasterns. 

Economic Importance. — Percherons outnumber in this coun- 
try all other draft breeds combined, and their popularity seems 
to be increasing projxirtionately. This is no doubt due, in part, 
to the good start given the breed by the pioneer breeders and 
importers. From the time of their introduction into Union and 
Pickaway counties, Ohio, in 1851, through their period of de- 
velopment in Ohio, Illinois, and Iowa, especially, they have been 
given every opportunity to make good. But more important than 
this, perhaps, has been their general adaptability to meet the con- 
ditions of the average American farmer. Even though the de- 
mand for the highest class of draft horses is from the cities, their 
production must, of necessity, involve the farmer. It is useless 
to attempt to interest the practical fanner in a proposition which 
does not appeal to him in a practical sense. Prom the very first 
the Percheron has made a strong bid for his favor. The adapt- 
ability which characterizes the Percheron as a breed may also 
be noticed in his use as a pure-bred sire. Prom a patronage of 
the most miscellaneous sort of mares, a Percheron will average 
a large percentage of marketable colts, varying, it is true, from 
weight-carrying saddle horses and hunters, and even harness 
horses, to the draftiest of draft horses, but each good in his class. 
The fact that most native American mares have some degree, if 
not a preponderance, of hot blood in their ancestry and may, 
therefore, be expected to nick better with Percheron stallions, 
may account for the manifest excellence of the latter in this 
respect. 

THE BELGIAN 

Belgium is a part of the original territory to which the old 
Flanders horse was indigenous, and as the history of the breed 



DRAFT BREEDS 91 

records no other stock, we conclude that this breed is, directly 
and exclusively, descended from the old Flemish stock. There 
are two respects, however, in which the Flemish ancestry is not 
indicated, namely, the absence of much hair and the infrequency 
of the black color. Selection may account for these modifications, 
however. 

Belgium is essentially an agricultural country, flat and low- 
lying for the most part, and horse breeding in a limited way is 
followed by most farmers. Each one has a colt or two to turn off 
each year. The Belgian Draft Horse Society has done much in 
the way of conducting shows, offering prizes, and providing 
subsidies to promote the interests of the breed. 

Three Original Types. — There were originally, according 
to Herr Van Schelle, who had charge of the Belgian Government 
horse exhibit at the St. Louis Exposition, three types of draft 
horses in Belgium : The Flemish, the largest, produced nearest 
the coast; the Brabacon, an intermediate type, bred farther in- 
land ; and the Ardennaise, a small, rapid draft horse similar and 
akin to the French horse of that name, bred in the border dis- 
tricts. There has been more or less amalgamation of these three 
originally distinct types in the evolution of the present-day 
Belgian cart horses. 

The American Type of Belgian. — It is claimed that the type 
has been considerably modified in accordance with the demand 
of American buyers. The old fashioned, more massive, but much 
less refined stamp still receives most favor in Belgium. The 
accepted type of Belgian horse in America is perhaps the most 
uniformly drafty of any of the breeds, short legs, a compact body 
(Fig. 70), wide, muscular ends, and deep, wide, spreading ribs 
being the rule. The head is- square and medium sized, the neck 
short and heavy crested. Roans and chestnuts predominate, 
though bays, browns, and occasionally grays and blacks appear. 
Hoofs deficient in circumference, bone that is not sufficiently 
flat, and necks that are too short and heavy, with, a general 
absence of refinement, are features in which average representa- 
tives of this breed are still subject to improvement. They show 
an interesting conformation of the hamstring, the muscles being 
apparently inserted directly upon the point of the hock, without 
the usual tendinous continuation. The extreme width of the 



92 



TYPES AND BREEDS 



Belgian may cause him to roll or paddle somewhat at the walk, 
but it is surprising- how well many of them trot. 

The Belgians have made wonderful progress- in this country, 
considering that they have been attracting much attention here 
only since about 1900. The improvement noted in this time has 
been equally remarkable. The Belgian sire has the effect of most 
consistently improving the draft form of his get, especially those 







Fig. 70. — A Belgian stallion of most acceptable stamp, embodying the desirable features of 
draftiness and good middle, and subject to little criticism of head and neck or legs and feet. 



from leggy, light-waisted mares, and mares of this stamp are most 
likely to have the degree of quality requisite to offset the defi- 
ciency, in this respect, sometimes shown by the pure-bred Bel- 
gian. Belgian grades are especially popular among feeders, it 
being characteristic of the breed to be good doers. They also ship 
unusually well. Belgians have probably shown, in this country, 
greater percentage increase in numbers and in merit than any 
other draft breed. 



DRAFT BREEDS 93 

THE BRITISH BREEDS 

Horse history in Great Britain dates back to 55 B.C., the date 
of the Roman Conquest. Cresar's description of the chariot 
manoeuvres, by which his advance was opposed, would indicate 
the existence at that time of a horse, diminutive in stature, but 
draftv in build, whose feats of handiness were remarkable. 
British coins, issued in the first century, confirm this opinion 
by the powerful type of horse struck on the metal. 

During the seventh century horses came into* use for riding. 
The chief demand was for the mounting of infantry forces, as a 
means of transportation only, the idea of cavalry or any form of 
fighting from horseback being suggested later by the Normans. 
As the soldier's chain armor at this period was heavy and the 
marches were hard, a large, stout horse was required. 

Later (1300) when plate armor began to replace chain, and 
the horses themselves were protected, the effectiveness of weapons 
having been increased, the weight imposed upon them became 
still greater and size more essential. Horse breeding was 
given most careful consideration by the Throne. The use of 
small stallions was discouraged and even prohibited by royal 
edict. The condition existed until modified methods of con- 
ducting warfare, incidental to the invention of gunpowder 
(1650), led to the discarding of armor and consequently of 
war horses of this type. 

Advent of Draft Horses. — Up to the eighteenth century 
draft work had been done principally by oxen or by inferior 
horses, not fit for service in war. After the beginning of that 
century, with its relegation of the war horse from the battlefield 
to become a humble beast of burden, the real era of the draft 
horse began. In the latter part of the eighteenth century two 
distinct types of cart horses are mentioned by Young, the Large 
Black Old English horse and the Suffolk Punch. 

Thus the British draft breeds have had a long period of 
development, the primary motive of which was war, not work. 
During, or even before, the first century, horses possessed some 
of the same characters which are now dominant in these breeds. 



94 TYPES AND BREEDS 

THE CLYDESDALE 

This breed takes its name from the Clyde River in Scotland, 
in the valley of which, especially the comities of Ayr and Lanark, 
it has been developed. The Clydesdale district is characterized 
by a rather broken surface and a stiff clay soil. The earliest 
history of horses in Britain describes a horse akin to the Scandi- 
navian ponies, the size of which was systematically increased, 
by royal edict, after the importance of greater size in war horses 
was impressed upon the Britons by the Roman conquest. While 
the original British stock was more or less composite, there is no 
evidence to contradict that the blood of the British draft breeds 
was derived, essentially, from the Flanders source. 

The importation of Flemish stallions into both Scotland and 
England in numbers as great as one hundred at a time, as in the 
case of King John, is a. matter of record. Furthermore, the 
interchange of horses across the border is acknowledged, even 
up to comparatively recent times, so that the distinguishing dif- 
ferences between the three British draft breeds must be ac- 
counted for in other w r ays than by their origin in blood, which 
it must be granted had much in common. The conditions of life 
surrounding these breeds during their formative period, and 
especially the variance in the notion of what constitutes a draft 
horse, as expressed by the Scotchman and the Englishman, are 
ample to account for whatever differences in type there may be. • 

The Scotchman's standard attaches especial importance to 
the locomotor? apparatus, legs, pasterns, and feet, and the way 
a horse moves. A free, springy stride executed with a wonder- 
ful degree of trueness and as much flash as is consistent with 
power have received primary consideration. As a consequence 
of the inevitable law of correlation, there has come to be asso- 
ciated with this character of stride more length of leg and back, 
less width and massiveness, and a somewhat shorter rib than 
is characteristic of the extreme draft type. 

Characteristics of Clydesdales. — While Clydesdale and 
Shire grades, and even pure breds, which depart somewhat from 
the true type, may have much in common, there is no difficulty 



DRAFT BREEDS 



95 



in distinguishing typical representatives of the two breeds. In 
contrast, with representatives of mosj other breeds, the Clydes- 
dale is recognized as a horse standing over more ground, with a 
toppy carriage, lacking somewhat in width and compactness, but 
well set ii]) (in logs, the direction of which, viewed from either the 
side or the end, is most accurate (Fig. 71). The quality of the 




Fig. 71. — A Clydesdale stallion of most impressive character, showing the form, set- 
ting of hind legs, slope of pasterns, quality of bone, feather, and distribution of while most 
desirable in this breed. 



bone is ideal ; the conformation of the hocks the most perfect of 
any of the draft, breeds ; the slope of the pasterns offers the great- 
est relief to concussion, and at the same time affords an angle of 
greatest degree through which to lift. In size and form the feet 
reflect the great care that has been exerted in selection, although 
the texture of horn, especially in white points, is not as dense and 
tough as in the case of the Percheron. The amount of feather has 
been materially reduced in compliance with American demand. 



96 TYPES AND BREEDS 

its quality being of the finest. The Scotchman still holds to the 
presence of feather, even stimulating its growth by artificial 
means in some instances. The superiority of the Clydesdale in 
action is a point quite generally conceded. The direction and 
conformation of his legs are such as to insure the straightest, 
springiest stride of which a draft horse is capable. 

Color. — Gray Clydesdales have been common at times in the 
history of the breed, but are now discriminated against in favor 
of bays and browns, with occasional blacks, chestnuts, and roans. 
White markings are characteristic, to the extent of splashes of 
white on the body or an even distribution of white hair through- 
out the coat, in addition to white in the face and on all four legs. 

Judged by the standards of other breeds, the Clydesdale has 
been criticised as deficient in scale and draftiness, and as be- 
ing plain in the head, low in the back, short in the rib, with a 
shelly foot, and too much white, with no regularity of distribu- 
tion. 

Although introduced at a comparatively early date, the 
Clydesdale has not received the consideration in this country 
which he seems to merit 

THE SHIRE 

It has already been pointed out, in reviewing the history of 
the Clydesdale, that from essentially the same original material 
the Scotchman has evolved the Clydesdale and the Englishman 
the Shire, in accordance with their own divergent conceptions of 
what a draft horse should be, and that, while they have much in 
common, the characters which distinguish them are extremely 
unlike. To be sure, the low-lying fenn country of Cambridge 
and Lincolnshire is more conducive to massive growth than is 
Scotland, it being also the home of the largest breed of sheep. 
Here the Shire and his antecedent, the black Lincolnshire cart 
horse, have been chiefly bred, but this environment has only sec- 
onded the English breeder in the attainment of his ideal. 

Characteristics. — The typical Shire will weigh more on the 
average than any other draft horse, although he is scarcely as 
blocky in form as the Belgian (Fig. 72).' He possesses the most 
substance, such as it is, but there is an absence of quality, marked 



DRAFT BREEDS 



97 



in size and contour of head, texture of hair, bone, and hoof — 
the hair showing an inclination to be coarse and kinky, espe- 
cially in the feather, the bone to be round and meaty, and the 
hoof to be of a loose, spongy, or shelly texture. I lis tempera- 
ment is extremely lymphatic, rendering him slower than is 
desired by many. On the basis of the scales and tape line stand- 




Fio. 72. — A Shire stallion of most approved type, combining an unusual degree of quality 
and character with the size, substance, and draftiness typical of this breed. 



ard, the Shire measures up well, but analyzed in minute detail 
he is subject to some criticism, especially in so far as his materials 
of construction are concerned. 

Color. — The range of color in the Shire is greater than in 
any other draft breed. Originally of sooty black, with white 
]x tints, he may now be found of any color, from black through 
the different shades of bay, brown, and chestnut to roan and 



98 TYPES AND BREEDS 

gray; A considerable amount of white, frequently too much, on 
face and legs is common. 

The popularity of the Shire in this country lias been re- 
stricted rather than general. There are some parts where he is 
bred almost exclusively, others in which he is almost unknown. 
His grossness, abundant feather, and sluggish movements pre- 
vent him from making a strong bid for general favor in compe- 
tition with the other breeds. 

Crosses.- — A percentage of Shire blood, especially in the 
dams from which market geldings are produced, is acknowl- 
edged to be a valuable asset. Attention has been called to the 
fact that much credit which belongs to the Shire has been as- 
signed to other breeds through just this sort of mating, the sires 
usually being most conspicuous and the dams obscure. Size and 
substance can be derived with greater certainty from Shire blood 
than from any other line of breeding. 

SUFFOLK 

The SufTolks are characterized as being of the purest lineage, 
most uniform color, and are bred more exclusively for farm work 
than any of the draft breeds. 

Their origin is untraced, but horses of this stamp are known 
to have been bred in Suffolk for over two centuries. So care- 
fully has their lineage been guarded that practically all of the 
pure-bred representatives of the breed trace back to a common 
ancestor, The Crisp Horse of ITfford, foaled in 1708. They are 
produced almost exclusively in Suffolk and adjoining Essex, in 
eastern England, by farmers and for farming purposes. 

Their especial adaptability for farm service is found in their 
good dispositions, which render them so easy of control as to make 
it possible to work them in tandem hitches without lines; their 
easy keeping quality, working long hours between feeds; and 
their persistence at the collar, pulling true under all circum- 
stances. 

Their distinguishing characteristics are the invariable chest- 
nut color of varying shades (Fig. 73), with little if any white, but 
often with flaxen manes and tails ; their smooth, rotund form ; 



DRAFT BREEDS 



99 



and a clean boned leg, devoid of feather. The old-fashioned ex- 
aggerated punch form is no longer common. 

Suffolks have been alleged to be under draft weight, too light- 
in bone, unbalanced in the proportion of body to legs, and with 
a foot inclining to be flat and shelly. These points have all been 
materially strengthened in the most approved type of the present- 
day Suffolk. 



h 








it £ 


: '*'^ fBi 


**\ 


.. : 




gffiP- 


> 


... p £^» 



Fig. 73. — A Suffolk stallion of the punch form, the clean bone and the chestnut color char- 
acteristic of this breed. 



Distribution. — Suffolks have never been imported or bred 
in any considerable numbers in this country, although in some 
sections there is an unaccountable prejudice in their favor, espe- 
cially among farmers, and in many instances they have been 
enthusiastically received when shown. It is claimed they are 
not available in large numbers, the area devoted to their produc- 
tion being limited and there being an active demand for them 



100 TYPES AND BREEDS 

at home and in South America, Africa, Russia, New Zealand, 
Australia, and Canada. 

Crosses. — So far as their grades have been seen, they have 
been of a rich chestnut color, making it easy to match up a team, 
smooth turned, well formed of body, of good size, and set upon 
feet and legs not subject to serious criticism. The prepotency 
of the Suffolk sire on grade mares is well marked in other re- 
spects than color. Grade Suffolk mares are said to make most 
acceptable dams from which to breed mules on account of their 
smooth form. 

REVIEW 

1. Name the draft breeds and the country to which each is native. 

2. How are the most distinctive characters of the Percheron accounted 

for? 

3. To what is the general popularity of the Percheron in this country 

due ? 

4. What characteristics of the Belgian are responsible for the increas- 

ing favor shown them in this country 1 ? 

5. What improvement has been marked in this bi'eed since its intro- 

duction into America? 

6. Review the early horse history of Great Britain. 

7. Compare a typical Clydesdale and a typical Shire and give reasons 

for the differences noted. 

8. Describe a representative Clydesdale stallion. 

9. Of what value is Shire blood in the production of grade geldings? 
10. To what kind of work is the Suffolk, as a breed, claimed to be best 

adapted and why? 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE HEAVY HARNESS BREEDS 

Six breeds are here included. They are discussed in the 
following- order: The Hackney, the French Coach, the German 
Coach, the Cleveland Bay, the Yorkshire Coach, and the Rus- 
sian Orion . The American Carriage Horse, now being bred by 
the U. S. Government, is of this type. 

THE HACKNEY 

Curiously enough, this horse, which is preeminently a show- 
harness horse today and more generally criticised as deficient in 
stamina than in any other one respect, was originally a road horse 
of most unusual endurance, used chiefly under saddle and carry- 
ing great weight. The very name " Hack " to which Hackney 
was contracted is suggestive of this type of horse. The term 
Hackney is adapted from the French Haquenee, originally de- 
rived from the Latin Equus. 

Early Hackney history was set in Norfolk and adjacent 
counties where there existed a remarkable family of distance 
trotters as early as the latter part of the eighteenth century. 
This was in the primitive days of roads and vehicles, so that 
these Norfolk trotters, as they were called, were used chiefly 
under saddle. Well-authenticated records of seventeen miles 
an hour over ordinary roads exist. The fact that this was the 
first line of trotters is most significant. England had already 
developed the running race horse, and there had existed at one 
time ambling riding horses, but this was the first horse in the 
world to trot fast. This fact is emphasized, as it has a bearing 
on the later evolution of our own Standardised trotter. This 
trotting instinct in the prototype of the modern Hackney has 
been accounted for in various ways. Since these horses were 
originally stoutly made, blocky, and heavy-fronted and have 
remained so until comparatively recently, it is reasonable to 
suppose that they carried, in addition to the Thoroughbred blood 
which predominated at that time, some degree of cold blood. 

101 



102 TYPES AND BREEDS 

Dutch stock has been suggested as a possible source of this. 
There were big black trotters in Friesland, but they showed no 
such speed at this gait as did the Norfolk Cob. Perhaps the 
speed, courage, and stamina of the Thoroughbred, coupled with 
the natural inclination to trot of the colder blooded Friesland 
" hart-draver," resulted in the square-gaited, fast, enduring, and 
rather high going Norfolk trotter. 

The real he (/inning of the Hackney breed is fixed at the 
original Shales horse, foaled 1760, by Blaze, Thoroughbred race 
horse, three generations removed from the Darley Arabian, out 
of a stout, common, probably hunting mare of Norfolk. 

Families conspicuous in the history of the breed have been 
the Fireaways, the Denmarks, the Danegelts and the Purick- 
willows. Leading sires at the present time are Polonius, 
Mathias, Royal Danegelt, and His Majesty. 

With the improvement in roads and vehicles, Hackneys were 
used more in harness, and their naturally high, trappy step was 
cultivated. They have eventually become the harness horse par 
excellence in America as in England. 

Description. — Typical Hackneys are comparatively short 
legged horses, rarely standing over 15—3, although they weigh 
veil for their stature. They are of true harness form most uni- 
formly of any of the breeds (Fig. 74). Their heads are square 
in outline, deep in the jowl ; necks well crested, but frequently 
too strong, lacking finish at the throttle, and giving a heavy 
forehand. 

Natural action, especially in hocks, is perhaps their .most 
distinguishing feature ; but it must not be a labored action that 
hits the ground hard. 

Color. — Chestnut color, with flashy white markings all 
'round, has been most common, although bays, browns, roans, and 
blacks are all acceptable. Originally, hard, solid colors pre- 
dominated in the breed. 

Popularity. — The Hackney's premier position in the show 
ring in this country is only occasionally contested by represen- 
tatives of any other breed, and they contribute largely to the 
ranks of the park harness horse. The Hackney stallion is strong 



THE HEAVY HARNESS BREEDS 



103 



in the impress of his shape and action, and nicks most satisfac- 
torily with either Standardbred or Thoroughbred mures in the 
production of a high class of harness or saddle horses. 

Registration. — The American Hackney Horse Society main- 
tains, in addition to the full registration in its studbook, a half 
registry, to which the filly foals of registered Hackney stallions,, 
out of mares of Standardbred or Thoroughbred breeding that 




Fig. 74. — A Hackney stallion, showing in high degree the distinctly harness form, the 
finish, the bold carriage, and the flash markings which have, together with their natural 
action, enabled them to win premier rank in the show ring. 

have boon approved by an authorized representative of the So 
ciety, are eligible. The filly foals of half-registered Hackney 
mares are eligible to full registration. 



FRENCH COACH 



Origin. — Since the seventeenth century, when the Govern- 
ment stnds or " haras " were established, the French have boon 
systematically breeding horses for army service. Their method 



104 



TYPES AND BREEDS 



up to 1840 was to mate Thoroughbred stallions with the native 
French mares of Normandy, where much of this breeding was 
done. These mares being of Flemish descent, the mating con- 
stituted practically a. hot top cross on a cold base. Horses so 
bred were called, most appropriately, demi sang (half blood). 
Since 1840 the half-breds have been inter-bred, although Thor- 
oughbred blood is still close up to many of the French coachers 
that have come to this country. 







Fig. 75. — A French coach stallion of the more refined sort. 



One of the imported stallions, Young Rattler, brought to 
France in 1820, gave rise'to the side line of coach horses, whose 
production was originally incidental to the breeding of cavalry 
mounts. The get of Young Rattler for succeeding generations 
were notable for their heavy harness form, style, and action. 
Some of the demi sang horses show considerable speed. Trot- 
ting races, on the turf under saddle for distances from two to 
three miles, are common events. 



THE HEAVY HARNESS BREEDS 



105 



There arc really three types of demi sang: The cavalry horse, 
the trotter, and the so-called coacher. The latter have been most 
extensively imported to this country, although there have been 
some record trotters aim nig them. 

The correct type of French Coach horse as we know him in 
this country (Fig. 75) is a. good-sized, rather up-standing indi- 
vidual, close and full made, but quite bloodlike in head and 
neck, withers, feet and legs. The big, drafty coacher is not 




Fig. 76. — A French Coach sire which, mated to trotting bred mares, has produced high- 
class harness horses with remarkable regularity. 



typical of this breed. As a class, they do not flex their hocks 
so sharply as do the Hackneys, and are not always faultless in 
knee action. 

Color. — Bays, browns and chestnuts, with occasional blacks 
and roans, are the usual colors, with one or two but rarely more 
white points. 

The French Coach as a Breeder. — Some almost perfect in- 
dividuals are found in this breed, yet they have never proven a. 
great suecess in the stud in this country. There are two possible 
reasons for this: Having had a cross-bred origin not so many 



106 TYPES AND BREEDS 

generations back, the type is not always fixed, as is exemplified 
among the breed representatives themselves, hence they may 
not breed true ; they have been largely mismated, being stood 
along with draft stallions and getting only those common bred 
mares that were considered too small to raise a draft colt. Bred 
to trotting-bred mares, results have proven very satisfactory in 
many instances, in the production of good-sized, well-shaped, 
and high-going harness horses (Fig. 76). 

GERMAN COACH 

Origin. — The different States of Germany have been pro- 
ducing big, stout horses for mounting the German cavalry for 
so long a time that their origin is obscure. Some Thoroughbred 
crosses have been made, no doubt, more especially in certain 
States, but as a rule the German horse shows very little of the 
refining influence of this blood. It is probable that some Oriental 
crosses have also been made, but cold blood dominates in their 
veins. 

They have been bred more or less under government super- 
vision, although the system is not so complete as in France. 
Each State has been, to a certain extent, a law unto itself, and 
has developed a type somewhat distinctive. Size and substance 
requisite to carry the heavy weight of the fully equipped Ger- 
man trooper have been sought more regularly than the pace and 
action of the harness horse. 

The type of German coacher which has been brought for- 
ward in this country is derived chiefly from Oldenburg and East 
Friesland. It is the largest pi any of the heavy harness breeds 
(Fig. 77), weighing 1500 pounds in some instances, with an ideal 
harness form, if not too drafty, as may be the case, but quite gen- 
erally deficient in quality, finish, style, pace, and action — in 
short, too cold. The more refined individuals present a most 
imposing stamp of coach horse, and some go> very well. 

Color. — Hard, solid colors are so prevalent that importers 
will sell a stallion under a guarantee to get a high percentage of 
colts that will be bay, brown or black, with very little if any 
white. 



THE HEAVY HARNESS BREEDS 



107 



Influence when Mated. — The finer sort of German horses, 
mated with mares of trotting or Thoroughbred breeding, possess- 
ing the quality and snap which the sire lacks, have produced 
with a fair degree of uniformity high class harness horses of the 




Fig. 77. — A German Coach stallion, showing th 



shape, and color typical of this breed. 



brougham type. Their long line of pure breeding has made the 
Grerman Coach horse more prepotent than his French contem- 
porary. .Mated with drafty mares, the result is not satisfactory. 
The coach horse is strongly of cold blood extraction, and coupled 
with a marc of like inheritance the produce is neither one thing 



108 TYPES AND BREEDS 

nor the other. A good rule is never to mate a. coach stallion with 
mares larger than he is. 



CLEVELAND BAY 

The Cleveland Bay was an old-fashioned stagecoach horse, 
occupying much the same position in England as the diligence 
Percheron did in France, although never so popular nor so ex- 
tensively hred. Like the latter, too, he was largely put out of 
business by the locomotive. Unlike the Percheron, however, the 
line of breeding of the Cleveland Bay, following the advent of 
the railroad, resulted in such a dissipation of the blood as to 
practically exterminate the breed. The original Cleveland Bay 
could not qualify as a harness or saddle horse, so the mares were 
bred to Thoroughbred sires. In turn the best half-breds were 
inter-bred, or remated with the Thoroughbred, and produced 
either good hunters or carriage horses. 

YORKSHIRE COACH 

The Yorkshire Coach horse is the result of such breeding. 
The Cleveland Bay takes its name from the Yale of Cleveland 
in Yorkshire, the coach horse from the county itself. 

THE ORLOFF 

The Russian Orloff is not of much economic importance in 
America, but is of interest in that it is the only other light har- 
ness breed beside our own, and from the fact that there is a 
decided interest in American trotters in Russia. The breed was 
developed solely by Count Alexis Orloff Tschismensky, from 
whom it takes its- name. 

The Orloff foundation was laid in a quarter-bred Arab stal- 
lion called Bars I, whose dam- was a Dutch mare (another in- 
stance of the trotting instinct tracing to the black trotter of 
Friesland). The sire's dam was a Danish mare. The grandsire 
was the gray Arab Smetanxa. This breeding was begun early 
in the last quarter of the eighteenth century. 



THE HEAVY HARNESS BREEDS 



109 




Fig. 78. — The lead pair in this road four are pure-bred Orloffs. 




Fig. 79. — Carrnon, at the head of the government stud of American carriage horse*. 



110 



TYPES AND BREEDS 



What few Orloffs have come to this country have been con- 
sidered as heavy harness horses, and the breed is therefore classed 
in this division, leaving the Standardbred supreme in the light 
harness division (Fig. 78). 



AMERICAN CARRIAGE HORSE 



The United States Government has taken advantage of the 
fact that it is not unusual to find a trotting-bred horse conform- 
ing to heavy harness specifications and that certain blood lines 
are most uniformly productive of this type (Fig. 70), to as- 




Fig. 80. — Pair of trotting-bred heavy harness horses to George IV phaeton. Undefeated 
in their day, either single, as a pair, or tandem, by representatives of any other heavy harness 
breed. 



semble such representatives as are available, for the foundation 
of an American Carriage Horse breed. It will apparently yet 
require many generations of selective breeding before these 
horses can fulfil the requirements of a breed. 

Trotting-bred heavy harness horses are better qualified to 
meet " pace and action " requirements than they are those of the 
high stepping classes (Fig. 80) . Their action is frequently unbal- 
anced, being deficient in hocks, but they can step away. 



THE HEAVY HARNESS BREEDS 111 

REVIEW 

1. Describe the Norfolk trotter and show his relation to the Hackney 
and the Standardbred. 

L\ What breed characteristics have enabled the Hackney to win suprem- 
acy in the show ring? 

3. Name a noted Hackney sire. 

4. Explain fully the meaning of the tenia " demi sang." 

5. Account for the lack of uniformity in the representatives of the 

French Coach breed imported to this country, also among their 
get. 

6. What are the most commendable features of the German Coach 

horse? 

7. To what sort of mares should coach stallions be mated? 

8. What was the original parentage of the Yorkshire Coach horse? 

9. Describe the origin of the Orloff. 

10. What is the so-called American Carriage Horse? 



CHAPTER IX 
AMERICAN BREEDS 

Native American Horses. — Conditions in this country have 
proven most congenial for the production of horses, yet there 
were none inhabiting this continent when it was discovered by 
Columbus. This is all the more remarkable in view of the fact 
that fossil remains of a prehistoric horse have been found in 
abundance in different parts of this country. It is believed that 
the horses originally on this continent passed over what is now 
Behring Straits, into Asia, during the early ages. 

The restocking of America was coincident with its explora- 
tion and colonization. Columbus landed horses on his second 
expedition, but it is not known whether or not they ever reached 
the mainland. The horses brought by Cortez, in his conquest 
of Mexico, in 1519, are credited with being the first to gain 
American soil. In 1527, Cabeza de Vaca brought horses to St. 
Augustine, Florida, which were afterward liberated. De Soto's 
expedition was equipped with horses when he discovered the 
Mississippi in 1541, although the majority of them were killed 
for their flesh after De Soto's death. These Spanish horses were 
derivatives from a Barb foundation with which Spain was orig- 
inally stocked. 

Horses, presumably of the old Norman and Breton stock, 
were taken by the French into Nova Scotia in 1604, and four 
years later were introduced into Canada. One stallion and six 
mares, Thoroughbred, reached Virginia with the English in 
1607. In 1625 Dutch horses, possibly the black trotter of Fries- 
land, arrived at New Netherlands. In 1629 the first horses to 
inhabit New England came with the English to Boston. This 
was the composite origin of the American horse stock, out of 
which our breeds have been evolved. 

As early as 1678 the descendants of horses that had escaped 
from, or were liberated by the early Spanish expeditions, were 
ranging wild in great bands over the prairies of this continent. 

The American breeds of horses are the Standardbred, includ- 
112 



AMERICAN BREEDS 



113 



ing the Alorgan, and the Saddle horse. The first pure breed to 
gain a foothold here was the Thoroughbred, and naturally the 
Thoroughbred has been the chief contributor in the foundation 
of the American breeds. 

STANDARDBRED 

Tins breed is so named because the members are bred to a 
standard of speed performance, that is, one mile in 2.30 or better 




Fig. 81. — A Standardbred stallion, a leading sire of the breed. 



trotting, 2.2."> or better pacing. In fact, the question has been 
raised whether or not the Standardbred fulfils the requirements 
which constitute a breed, as long as individuals may become 
standard by performance, though not by breeding. It is prob- 
able that in the very near future the rule admitting horses to 
registry by standard performance alone will be rescinded. 



114 TYPES AND BREEDS 

Origin. — Orange County, New York, was the original seat 
of this breed; then Kentucky, and eventually the States in 
general, California in particular. The chief interest in trotters 
centered about New York City, where the improvement in the 
construction of roads gave a great stimulus to road driving. 
Their foundation blood lines were laid in Orange County. 

The two most notable foundation sires in America were im- 
ported Messenger and Justin Morgan. 

Messenger was a gray Thoroughbred, six generations re- 
moved from the Darley Arabian, imported from England, as an 
eight-year-old in 1788. He stood most of his life about New 
York and Philadelphia, where he left numerous progeny. Al- 
though himself a running race horse, brought to this country for 
the improvement of runners, he soon became noted as a sire of 
trotters, and upon his trotting sons and grandsons, daughters 
and granddaughters, the Standardbred is based. It has been 
sne'eested that the fact that the horse stock about New York 

uo 

was descended from the horses brought over by the Dutch, and 
that a family of trotters were native to Friesland, would account 
for so many of the get of Messenger being trotters. The infer- 
ence is that Messenger imparted the speed and stamina, while his 
get derived their instinct to trot from their Dutch-bred dams. 
The most notable of Messenger's sons was Mambrino, the sire of 
Mambrino Paymaster and Abdallah. Mambrino Paymaster in 
turn sired Mambrino. Chief, from whom the Mambrino family 
of trotters and the Chief family of Saddle horses of Kentucky 
are descended. Abdallah sired Hambletonian 10, the most 
conspicuous sire of the Standardbred. 

Hambletonian io, or Rysdyk's Hambletonian, is regarded 
as the progenitor of the Standardbred, so far as one individ- 
ual can claim that distinction (Fig. 82). He was foaled 
the property of Jonas Seeley near Chester, Orange County, 
New York, in 1849, but soon passed into the hands of the man 
he made famous, Wm. M. Rysdyk. Notwithstanding the fact 
that his stud fees later amounted to $184,725.00, Rysdyk dick- 
ered a long time before the purchase price of $125.00 for the 
mare and foal was agreed upon. This would indicate that neither 
party to the transaction had any conception of the ultimate value 



AMERICAN BREEDS 



115 



and importance of this c<»lt. Attention was first directed to 
Hambletonian by his gelded son Dexter, who in 1864, 1865, 
1866, and 1867 defeated the best horses of the day, George 
Wilkes, George M. Patchen, Goldsmith Maid, Lady Thome, 
Flora Temple, and others. The year that Dexter began his 
sensational performances Hambletonian bred 217 mares and 
got 118 colts ; subsequently he was so extensively patronized that 





m% «* 


7 


* 


SIS?? 


w$£m 





Fig. 82. — Hambletonian 10, at 23 years of age. 



he commanded a service fee of $500.00. It need not necessarily 
detract from his name and fame to state that no horse ever had 
such an opportunity in the stud. It was thus that he became the 
founder of the breed, being the sire of 1321 colts. He died in 
1876, and a monument was erected to his memory (Fig. 83). 

Hambletonian's best son was George Wilkes, a small but 
powerfully made brown horse, foaled 1856, out of Dolly Spanker, 
a good road mare of untraced ancestry. George Wilkes was both 
a race horse and a sire; after a most remarkable racing career 



116 



TYPES AND BREEDS 



he was retired to the stud, first in New York, later in Kentucky. 
His prepotency was marvelous and is still breeding on. To 
designate a horse as of Wilkes' breeding means little in view of 
the numerous ramifications of this family. 

George Wilkes' best sons were Brown Wilkes, Alcantara, 
Alcyone, Bourbon Wilkes, Baron Wilkes, Jaybird, Kentucky 
Wilkes, Onward, Patchen Wilkes, Bed Wilkes, Simmons, Wilkes 
Boy, and Gambetta Wilkes. 




Fig. S3. — Monument over grave of Hambletonian 10 at Chester, N. Y., located on a lot 
in outskirts of town with a house on either side. 



Other sons of Hambletonian were Alexander's Abdallah, 
Messenger Duroc, Belmont, Electioneer, Almont, Volunteer, 
Aberdeen, Happy Medium (sire of Nancy Hanks), Harold (sire 
of Maud S.), Dictator, and Strathmore. 

The dam of Hambletonian TO was the Charles Kent mare of 
ordinary road ability, sired by Bellfounder, called at that time a 
Norfolk trotter, but in the light of present knowledge a Hackney. 



AMERICAN BREEDS 117 

The Blood Line. — The following arrangement of blond lines 
is interesting, in view, first, of the prevalence of the trotting 
instinct in both, and second, of the successful manner in which 
Standardised* and Hackneys nick. 

Darley Arabian 
Flying Childers 
Blaze. 



Shales Sampson 

I .1 

Driver Engineer 

I . I 

Jenkinson's Fireaway Mambrino 

Wroots' Pretender Messenger (Imported) 

I f 

Stevens' Bellfounder Mambrino 



Jary 's Bellfounder (Imported) ^^--Abdallah — Mambrino Paymaster 

I ^-^""^ • I. 

Chas. Kent mare.-"' — Mambrino Chief" — 

Mambrino family of Chief family of 

trotters saddle horses. 

Hambletonian 10 

Other families that have heen interwoven into the fabric, as 
it were, of the Standardbred are: 

The Clays, descended from Henry Clay, whose ancestry is 
shown below. 

Imported Grand Bashaw (Barb from Tripoli 1820) 
Young Bashaw 

Andrew Jackson 

Henry Clay 

The Mambrinos descended from Mambrino Chief, who sired 
Mambrino Patchen, and he in turn sired Mambrino Kino-. 

The Pilots descended from Pilot, Jr., the son of a Canadian 
pacer, so-called, and noted as a brood mare sire. His best 
daughter was Miss Russell, the dam of Maud S., Nutwood, Lord 
Russell, and many others. 

The Hals, the most distinguished and exclusively pacing 
family, descended from Kittrel's Tom Hal, a roan stallion 
brought from Canada. His get, in Tennessee, founded this 



118 



TYPES AND BREEDS 







. 



Fiq. 84. — Green Mountain Maid in 1873. 




Fig. 85. — Inscription on monument of Green Mountain Maid at Stony Ford. 



AMERICAN BREEDS 



119 



pacing family through Tom Hal, Jr., or Gibson's Tom Hal, the 
sire of Brown Hal, who begot Star Pointer and a numerous 
progeny of Hals, all very fast pacers. In Kentucky the Hals 
are identified with the foundation of the Saddle breed. 

The greatest brood mare in the foundation of the Standard- 
bred was Green Mountain Maid (Figs. 84 and 85), daughter of 
Harry Clay, and dam of Electioneer, one of the most con- 
spicuous sires of the breed. The greatest pacing dam was 
Sweepstakes. 




eal representative" of the Standardised. In addition to 2.10 speed, he 
possesses beauty of form, finish, style, and intelligence. 



Demand for Standardbred Horses. — The popularity of har- 
ness racing and road driving has enabled this breed to make 
remarkable progress in a half century. They are now the recog- 
nized exponents of the light harness type, and are exported in 
large numbers, especially to Russia and Austria. In fact, the 
rate at which souk 1 of the best stallions and mares are being taken 
abroad indicates a lack of the true constructive breeder's spirit, 
and forebodes ill for the future of the breed. Unfortunately, 



120 



TYPES AND BREEDS 



speed performance alone has been the standard of selection, and 
while attainments in this line have been great, there is a woeful 
lack of uniformity among trotters. They come in all shapes, 
sizes, and colors. Among the representatives of the breed are 
many ideal individuals with a wide range of adaptability (Fig. 
86) to almost any kind of service, but too many are otherwise. 




Fig. 87. — A 16-hand, 1200-pound standard performer, whose get are the general-purpose 
horses on the majority of farms within a wide radius of his home. 



The show ring has served a commendable purpose wherein 
the race track has failed hi this connection, and it is gratifying 
to see a uniform standard of excellence gradually being evolved. 

The versatility of the Standardbred is demonstrated by the 
fact that the champion heavy harness horse of this country, 
Nala, and the champion saddle mare of a few years back, Miss 
Anne, were both of this breeding, while in many parts of the 
East, big, stout, good-headed trotters are doing the farm work 
(Fig. 87). Many hunters are all or part Standardbred, and this 



AMERICAN BREEDS 121 

blood seems to be most favored for the production of army re- 
mounts by those who are well informed. There are great possi- 
bilities in the breed which have been overlooked in an ill-advised 
effort to raise race horses and race horses only. 

Rules of Eligibility. — The significance of the name Stand- 
ardised is made clear by a consideration of the rules of eligi- 
bility to registry in the American Trotting Register. 

The Trotting Standard. — When an animal meets these re- 
quirements and is duly registered it shall be accepted as a Stand- 
ardbred trotter : 

1. The progeny of a registered standard trotting horse and a 
registered standard trotting mare. 

2. A stallion sired by a registered standard trotting horse, 
provided his dam and grandam were sired by registered standard 
trotting horses, and he himself has a trotting record of 2.30 and 
is the sire of three trotters with records of 2.30, from different 
mares. 

3. A mare wdiose sire is a registered standard trotting horse, 
and whose dam and grandam were sired by registered standard 
trotting horses, provided she herself has a trotting record of 2.30 
or is the dam of one trotter with a record of 2.30. 

4. A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse, pro- 
vided she is the dam of two trotters with records of 2.30. 

5. A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse, pro- 
vided her first, second, and third dams are each sired by a regis- 
tered standard trotting horse. 

The Pacing Standard. — When an animal meets these require- 
ments and is duly registered, it shall be accepted as a Standard- 
bred pacer: 

1. The progeny of a registered standard pacing horse and a 
registered standard pacing mare. 

2. A stallion sired by a registered standard pacing horse, 
provided his dam and grandam were sired by registered standard 
pacing horses, and he himself has a pacing record of 2.25, and 
is the sire of three pacers with records of 2.2.*>, from different 
mares. 

3. A mare whose sire is a registered standard pacing horse 
and whose dam and grandam were sired bv registered standard 



122 TYPES AND BREEDS 

pacing horses, provided she herself has a pacing record of 2.25, 
or is the dam of one pacer with a record of 2.25. 

4. A mare sired bj a registered standard pacing horse, pro- 
vided she is the dam of two pacers with records of 2.25. 

5. A mare sired by a registered standard pacing horse, pro- 
vided her first, second, and third dams are each sired by a reg- 
istered standard pacing horse. 

6. The progeny of a registered standard trotting horse out of 
a registered standard pacing mare, or of a registered standard 
pacing horse out of a registered standard trotting mare. 

Speed Records. — The following are the record perform- 
ances to date for one mile (from " Horseman's Annual ") : 

Gelding, trotter " Uhlan" 1.58% 

Gelding, pacer "Prince Albert" 1.59>£ 

Stallion, trotter "The Harvester" 2.01 

Stallion, pacer "Dan Patch" 1.55% 

Mare, trotter " Lou Dillon" 1.58 j| 

S3 SS: ::::::::::::::: i-EgSLd c „ } ho„o rs even. . 2 .oom 

Yearling, trotter "Miss Stokes" filly 2.19% 

Yearling, trotter "Wilbur Lou" colt 2.19J^ 

Yearling, pacer "Present Queen" filly 2.20% 

Yearling, pacer "Frank Perry" colt 2.15 

Yearling, pacer "Rollo" gelding 2.283^ 

Stallion, trotting to wagon "John A. McKerron" 2.10 

Stallion, pacing to wagon "Dan Patch" 1.57% 

Mare, trotting to wagon " Lou Dillon" 2.00 

Mare, pacing to wagon "Aileen Wilson" 2.04% 

Gelding, trotting to wagon "Uhlan" 2.00 

Gelding, pacing to wagon " Little Boy " 2.01 J^ 

„ , ... /"The Monk") o c\v\/ 

Team, trotting j "Equity" I 2.07% 

Team, pacing •'•••{" Sf Maud C^ } 202 ^ 

The Light Harness Type.— The Standardbred (Fig. 81) 
represents so truly the light harness type that his detailed de- 
scription would be a duplication of that already given under the 
light harness division, in the classification of horses (see 
Chapter V). 

THE MORGAN'S 

The propriety of designating the Morgan a breed is ques- 
tionable. To be sure, there is a studbook maintained which has 
been duly recognized, but the requirements for registry are so 



AMERICAN BREEDS 123 

open as to include many individuals that could not fulfil the 
specifications of a breed. The important part played by the 
Morgan horse in the establishment and development of the Stand- 
ardbred and the American Saddle horse is sufficiently important, 
however, and his characteristics distinctive enough, to justify his 
being considered apart from the other breeds with which he has 
been closely identified. 

Justin Morgan shares honors with Messenger as a founda- 
tion sire of the Standardbred, and the correction and verification 
of pedigrees of noted sires and dams have increased the credit due 
him. He was a remarkable individual foaled at Springfield, 
Mass., in 1789, and lived to be thirty-two years old. He was a 
small horse, about 14—2 hands high and 950 pounds weight. Of 
him wonderful performances of endurance, speed, pulling power, 
and intelligence are recorded. His individuality was no more 
striking than the prepotency with which he impressed his get. 
Had the Morgan blood been kept pure, there can be little ques- 
tion of its having ultimately fulfilled all the requirements for 
recognition as a breed. Even the wide dissemination of the blocd 
has not resulted in the complete obliteration of the Morgan 
character, which may be discerned though but a fractional part of 
Morgan inheritance is represented. 

The breeding of the original Morgan horse has never been 
satisfactorily established, as the horse himself and those who 
knew of him were dead before any effort was made to trace his 
ancestry. Colonel Joseph Battell, who has devoted much time 
to an investigation of this matter, has given the sire as a Thor- 
oughbred called Beautiful Bay and the dam as a member of the 
Wildair family of Thoroughbreds. Such breeding is not indi- 
cated, however, by the descriptions of the horse with which we 
are furnished, although the Thoroughbreds of his time were 
more like him than are the Thoroughbreds of the present. A 
Dutch origin similar to that of the Norfolk trotter has been sug- 
gested and does not seem unreasonable, since Dutch blood was 
available at the time of his breeding and he more closely re- 
sembles in type the old-fashioned Hackney than any other breed. 
The Thoroughbred ancestry, however, is the one usually ac- 
cepted, though not altogether satisfactory. 



124 



TYPES AND BREEDS 



Sons of Justin Morgan. — The three most notable sons of 
Justin Morgan were: (1) Bullrush Morgan, the descendants 
of whom arc ('specially noted for their size, substance, and sound- 
ness, and represented by the Morrill family; (2) Woodbury 
Morgan, who is described as possessing attractive action and 
spirit and who was the progenitor of the Gilford and Morgan 
Eagle branches ; and (3) Sherman Morgan, from whom came, in 




Fig. 



I. — Original photo of Ethan Allen made in 1859. It shows the inaccuracy of some of 
the old cuts alleged to be true likenesses of this horse. 



successive generations, the three greatest horses of their days, 
Black Hawk (Vermont or 'Sill's), Ethan Allen (Fig. 88), and 
Daniel Lambert. In Daniel Lambert the type underwent some 
alteration, as the blood lines of the two foundation American 
sires were brought together, Fanny Cook, the dam of Lambert, 
being by Abdallah, grandson of Messenger and sire of Hamble- 
tonian. 

Morgan Blood in Other Breeds. — With the development of 
trotting speed and the increasing popularity of the Hambleton- 



AMERICAN BREEDS 



125 



ians, the prestige which the Morgans had enjoyed as road 
horses was shattered. Morgan marcs were mated with sons and 
grandsons of Hambletonian, and later those of Denmark, to such 
an extent that for years the breed, in its original purity and type, 
has been threatened with extinction. To this very fact, however, 
may be attributed, in some part at least, the merit thai lias been 
attained in the Standardised and the American Saddle horse. 
A study of the blood lines of a great many of the most conspicu- 




Fig. 89. — A Morgan stallion, showing the size, form, and character 
typical of this family of horses. 

ous representatives of the two breeds reveals to what extent the 
Morgan has been incorporated, especially through foundation 
mares. The blood has, therefore, been spent rather than lost. 

A description of Justin Morgan is typical of his descendants 
(Fig. 89). lie was brown, slightly over 1-i hands in height, 950 
pounds in weight, very compactly made, with a short, strong 
back, round, deep rib, broad loin, and strong coupling; a breedy 
head, proudly carried, rather heavy neck, with prominent crest, 
short legs well set and of unusual substance ; and an airy, busy, 
but not high way of going. Bay, brown, and black colors prevail 



126 



TYPES AND BREEDS 



in the breed outside the Lambert family, where chestnut with a 
light sprinkling of white predominates. 

Improving the Breed. — The United States Department of 
Agriculture has undertaken to assemble enough representative 
Morgans to form the nucleus of a stud, the object of which shall 
be the preservation of the stock and improvement in the line of 
a more approved type, better calculated to meet modern demand, 




Fig. 90. — General Gates, at the head of the government Morgan stud. 



especially in the matter of size (Fig. 90). We are reminded, 
in this connection, of the statement that when an Arab exceeds 
14—2 he ceases to be an Arab. There is reason to believe that it 
may be necessary to sacrifice some of the most distinctly Morgan 
characters in order to attain the desired size, and in view of the 
active demand for cobs, which old-fashioned Morgans are, the 
wisdom of such a course is not altogether apparent. 

The Morgan Horse Club, recently organized, has inaugu- 
rated an active campaign in the interest of the Morgan horse. 



AMERICAN BREEDS 127 

At recent Vermont State fairs and National horse shows some 
very creditable classes of Morgans have been exhibited under the 
auspices of this club. 

THE AMERICAN SADDLE HORSE 

The development of this breed has been parallel in many 
respects with that of the American trotter. Both are the result 
of a Thoroughbred top cross on what might be termed a native 
mare foundation, and in each case the descendants of one indi- 
vidual have constituted a family which has dominated the breed. 
Their respective histories are also more or less contemporaneous. 
Denmark, the Thoroughbred whose progeny founded the Saddle 
breed, was foaled in 1839, while Messenger reached this country 
in 1788 and his great grandson Hambletonian was foaled in 
1849. 

Evolution of the Saddle Horse. — The chief differences which 
influenced the evolution of the Saddle horse and the trotter are 
those which concerned the native mares and the ends in view of 
the breeders. The original American Saddle horse was born, of 
necessity, on the frontier where horses' backs afforded the chief 
means of transportation. The easy, lateral, ambling gait was 
cultivated, and those horses which showed greatest aptitude in 
this direction were selected for breeding. On the other hand, 
road and vehicle construction progressed most rapidly in the 
vicinity of the large Eastern cities, hence the breeding of the 
trotter or road horses centered around New York City and Phila- 
delphia, and the foundation was laid in mares which had proven 
themselves best adapted to trotting in harness. While horses 
were more extensively used for riding than for driving purposes 
in this country during the earlier period, the Saddle breed, in 
its present degree of development, is of more recent origin than 
the Standardbred. Furthermore, selection in the case of the 
Saddle bred horse has not been to a standard of performance 
alone, but ideals in type, conformation, and quality as well have 
been sought and are as clearly marked in the prepotency of the 
foundation families as is performance. 



128 TYPES AND BREEDS 

Foundation Stock. — In order to establish a definite begin- 
ning the American Saddle Horse Breeders' Association orig- 
inally accepted these sires as constituting foundation stock : 

Denmark (Thoroughbred) by Imported Hedgeford. 

John Dillard, by Indian Chief (Canadian). 

Tom Hal (Imported from Canada). 

Cabell's Lexington, by Gist's Black Hawk (Morgan). 

Coleman's Eureka (Thoroughbred and Morgan). 

Van Meter's Waxy (Thoroughbred). 

Stump-The-Dealer ( Thoroughbred ) . 

Peter's Halcorn. 

Davy Crockett. 

Pat Cleburne, by Benton's Gray Diomed. 

Influence of the Thoroughbred. — The extent to which the 
Thoroughbred has been involved in the origin and development 
of the Saddle breed is shown by the following census of the 
breeding of all individuals registered in Vol. "I of the studbook: 

Thoroughbred 3 

50 per cent. Thoroughbred blood 50 

25 per cent. Thoroughbred blood 296 

12y 3 per cent. Thoroughbred blood 343 

GVi per cent. Thoroughbred blood 152 

3 per cent. Thoroughbred blood 36 

Uncertain 203 

Denmark was a Thoroughbred, by Imported Hedgeford, of 
whom little else is recorded, foaled in Fayette County, Kentucky, 
in 1839. He never achieved great fame as a race horse, although 
it is claimed that his races were characterized by unusual game- 
ness and stamina. He had a numerous progeny, the most notable 
of which was Gaines' Denmark, whose dam, the Stevenson mare, 
was a great natural ambler, representing the then common stock 
of the country and believed, by some, to be of greater foundation 
importance than Denmark himself, 

Gaines' Denmark is considered the founder of the breed, 
although other lines have since been developed from which good 



AMERICAN BREEDS 



129 



results have been secured, cither independently or in combina- 
tion with the line of Denmark. These blood lines are shown 
below. 



(Washington Denmark 64 J 



Crigler's Denmark 1855-1868 



(Gaines' Denmark 61 

Polly Hopkins 46 
by Cockspur. 



Rex Denmark 840 
1884-1902 



Daughter of. 



(Star of the West 



[Daughter of 



Black Squirrel 58. 
1876-1898 



(Black Eagle 74. 
1869-1888 



Lucy Mack 2459 . 



Star. 



Bourbon Chief. 
No. 976 (S.). 



Belle. 



Annie C. 



Wilson's King . 
No. 219(1 (S.)- 



Bj - 



[Mollie 70 

(Old Star Davis 



f Mohawk 

(King William 67 
[Kitty Richards (th.) 
(Giltner's Highlander 
[Betty 69 by McDonald 



(Clark Chief. 
No. 89. 



Harrison Chief. . . \ 
No. 1606 (S.). 



[ Mollie fSam Martin's Farmer 

fMambrino Chief. 
I No. 11. 

(Little Nora. 

!Joe Downing. 
No. 710. 
Eagle, by Robert 
Bruce. 

(Washington Denmark. 
No. 64 (8.). 

Queen. 

No. 48 (S.). 

Bellfounder. 



[Lute Boyd. 



Latham's Denmark. 
No. 69 (S.). 



By 



[Harrison Chief. . 
No. 1606 (S.). 



(Clark Chief. 
I No. 89. 

(Lute Boyd. 

[Parsons' Abdallah. 

]Bv Yellow Jacket. 
I No. 112 (S.). 

Indian Chief. 

T ,. , ,. No. 1718 (S.). 

Richelieu v ' 



By. 



By. 



(Kentucky Chief, by 
Indian Chief No. 
1718 (S.). 

I By Salmon's Olencoe 
'(Th.). 



130 TYPES AND BREEDS 

The above pedigrees of two of the greatest sires of the breed 
represent the two lines of breeding, the former being a strongly 
bred Denmark, while the latter has a combination of the blood 
of Mambrino Chief, Gaines' Denmark, Edwin Forrest, and 
Black Hawk through Harrison Chief, Latham's Denmark 
(grandson of Gaines' Denmark) and Indian Chief. The pedi- 
gree of Bourbon King also shows a degree of close breeding which 
is rather typical. The Chief family which Bourbon King rep- 
resents are the principal contemporaries of the Denmarks. 

Other prominent sires are Highland Denmark and Chester 
Dare, both by Black Squirrel and out of daughters of Dave Akin, 
Montgomery Chief, by Bourbon Chief, Wilson's King, by Har- 
rison Chief, and Wyatt's Red Cloud, by Indian Chief, the latter 
two being more particularly the sires of harness horses. 

Three of the greatest producing mares are (1) Nannie Gar- 
ret, by Dave Akin, (2) Annie C, by Wilson's King, and (3) 
Little Kate, the dam of four of the best horses shown in 1913 — 
Kentucky's Choice, Kentucky's Best, Kentucky's Selection, and 
Undulata Queen, all by My Own Kentucky. 

The chief centres of Saddle horse breeding are the central 
counties of Kentucky and the region about Columbia and Mexico, 
Missouri. 

The War a Setback. — The Civil War caused a serious set- 
back to the progress of the Saddle horse breed, all available 
mounts being pressed into service, many of which were sacri- 
ficed, while others were kept out of breeding for a considerable 
period. Some of the most noted stallions of the breed served 
as officers' mounts during the Civil War. This breed also suf- 
fered from the increased popularity of the Standardbred during 
the period subsequent to the war. Many of the best Saddle bred 
mares were mated with Standardbred stallions. The present 
popularity of the Saddle horse has brought this breed into a 
more conspicuous position than it has ever before occupied. 

Characteristics. — The Saddle horse is characterized by being 
rather up-standing, possessed of a most beautifully molded and 
set head and neck, a very smoothly turned form, short back, level 
croup, and high set tail (Fig. 91). From an artistic point of 
view, he is perhaps the most beautiful of all horses, being the 



AMERICAN BREEDS 131 

extreme embodiment of quality and finish, an ideal which lias 
been fostered by the so-called " model " classes of Southern shows. 
Some have been bred so very fine, however, as to be markedly de- 
ficient in substance. His flashy way of going, with head and 
tail carried high, has led to his being rather contemptuously 
dubbed a " peacock " by advocates of the plainer but perhaps 
more substantial part-bred hack. 




Fig. 91. — An American Saddle stallion, showing the beautifully molded form, the stylish 
carriage of head and tail, and the extreme refinement characteristic of this breed. 

Colors of the Saddle horse are not confined within any limit, 
although certain families are very uniform in the transmission 
of color, especially black in the Denmarks and chestnut in the 
Chiefs and Kings. Bay is also common. 

Gaits. — Saddle horses were previously required to go the five 
gaits in order to qualify, but the increased demand for walk-trot- 



132 TYPES AND BREEDS 

canter horses has led to their being given more consideration by 
Saddle horse breeders. 

Uses. — The American Saddle horse is not used exclusively 
for saddle purposes. Not only are all representatives schooled 
to go in harness, but some of our best American bred harness 
show horses have been produced by Saddle breeding. Also some 
of the best harness horses in Kentucky and Missouri have event- 
ually become winners in the saddle classes of the greatest Ameri- 
can shows. Horses of this breed meet the present demand for 
combination horses more naturally than those of any other breed. 
Their intelligence, instinctively good manners, beautiful con- 
formation, style, and finish, as well as their dual usefulness, 
enable them to command the admiration especially of those who 
use horses for the horse's sake. Their ability to go the slow gaits 
has also led to their being used for riding after cattle and for 
general business saddle purposes, while much has been claimed 
for them as cavalry mounts and officers' chargers. Saddle-bred 
horses make most acceptable models for artists and sculptors. 

REVIEW 

1. Review the original stocking of this continent with horses. 

2. Why is the foundation of the Standardbred laid in New York, that 

of the Saddle horse in Kentucky? 

3. Explain the relation of Messenger to the Standardbred. 

4. Identify Hambletonian 10, George Wilkes, Mambrino Chief, Green 

Mountain Maid, Henry Clay. 

5. Of what economic importance is the Standardbred? 

6. In what respects were the foundations of the Standardbred and the 

American Saddle horse similar and in what respects did they 
differ? 

7. Describe the Denmark branch of the American Saddle breed. 

8. What of the outlook for the American Saddle horse, and why? 

9. Who are Bourbon King,' Rex McDonald, Cabell's Lexington, Har- 

rison Chief, Little Kate? 
10. Describe Justin Morgan and explain his work as a foundation 
American sire. 



CHAPTER X 

PONY BREEDS 

Here are discussed the Shetland ponies, the Welsh ponies, 
and the Hackney ponies. 

THE SHETLAND PONY 

Environment has had more to do in determining the charac- 
teristics of the Shetland than any other breed of horses. It has 
not, however, been the only factor, as suggested by Darwin, there 
having been a separate pony race indigenous to this part of the 
world, the Equus celticus of Ewart. The Shetland Islands, 
situated about 200 miles off the north coast of Scotland and 
within 350 miles of the Arctic circle, are rough and unproduct- 
ive, and the people poor. Only a few of the large group of 
islands are inhabited. 

This breed of ponies has developed under the most adverse 
conditions, being close companions in adversity with the native 
crofters, even to the extent of sharing their huts and provisions. 
Their most characteristic diminutive size, hardiness, good dis- 
positions, and meagre requirements may be thus accounted for. 
Their chief occupation in the islands is to carry peat for the use 
of the crofters, the customary load consisting of from 120 to 
140 pounds, which is packed and carried over the roughest and 
hardest of trails. 

The first real impetus to their systematic breeding came from 
Scotland and England, where they were found to be of service 
in working out the shallow veins of coal. They were bred most 
extensively for mine use by the Marquis of Londonderry. It 
was later that there arose an active demand for Shetlands as 
children's ponies, and it is claimed this call came chiefly from 
America. 

The type of the old country Shetland is that of a draft horse 
(Fig. 92) in miniature, the maximum of horse power in the 
smallest compass. In this country more refinement, in keeping 

133 



134 



TYPES AND BREEDS 



with saddle and harness use, is desired (Fig. 93). A slightly 
less blocky pony not so low down is better shaped for riding and 
will have more si ride. 




Fig. 92. — The old country idea of Shetland type is a miniature draft horse. 




Fig. 93. — A Shetland stallion, American bred, and representative of the type most in favor 

in this country. 



This breed's chief asset for their work in this country is 
their patient, docile, and demonstrative disposition. They are 
generally fearless and thoroughly reliable under all circum- 
stances. Thev do not have an ideal saddle conformation nor 



PONY BREEDS 135 

heads and necks that make for light months, but the notion enter- 
tained by some that they are bullish and wilful is largely due to 
the fact that, being naturally tractable, they receive but the most 
elementary schooling. 

A standard height of 42 inches has been fixed in this coun- 
try, with a proportionate discount up to 46 inches. If in excess 
of this they are disqualified. 

Colors.— Solid colors, black or a cinnamon brown being most 
typical, are preferred by breeders, while buyers of ponies to use 
generally express a preference for the skewbalds and piebalds. 
The widest range of oddest colors is permissible, but broken 
colors are suggestive of some Iceland or Faroe Island foundation 
in the remote ancestry. 

Too Little Discrimination. — While the demand for chil- 
dren's ponies is strong and they meet with ready sale, there is not 
sufficient discrimination among buyers to stimulate much im- 
provement in the breed. All ponies look alike to the majority, 
it seems, and so long as they are clever and safe, no further ques- 
tions are asked. The result is that the average pony falls short 
of ordinary horse standards, leggy, coarse-headed, flat-ribbed, 
steep-rumped, cat-hammed, and crooked-legged individuals, with 
no step, being all too common. On the other hand, some wonder- 
fully typical, good-going ponies have been brought out by those 
who have given time and study t<> their production. 

THE WELSH POXY 

The Welsh pony is native to the rough mountain districts of 
Wales, but has long been bred for actual road work. Their open 
life, ranging in bands, has made them extremely rugged and 
thrifty. Some improvement in their way of going has been 
secured by the use of small ]STorfolk trotting stallions from time 
to time, although not enough crossing has been done to destroy 
the original integrity of the breed. 

The true type of Welsh pony is comparable to a miniature 
coach horse (Fig. 94), pony built, yet with a good head, neck, 
and forehand, well formed legs, and considerable speed and action 
at the trot, with unusual endurance. They are snappy and free, 



136 



TYPES AND BREEDS 



all horse for their size, and are, therefore, better adapted to the 
use of junior equestrians than as playmates for little children, 
the field of the Shetland pony. 

The foreign Welsh Pony and Cob Studbook gives this classi- 
fication according to height : 

A. Ponies not exceeding 12 hands, 2 inches. 

B. Ponies 12 hands, 2 inches to 13 hands, 2 inches. 

C. Ponies 13 hands, 2 inches to 14 hands, 2 inches. 
1). Ponies 14 hands, 2 inches to 15 hands, 2 inches. 




Fig. 94. — A Welsh pony stallion, showing the size and form characteristic of the breed. 

The last three show an increasing percentage of the Xorfolk 
cob blood. Those of class D are in excess of the pony limit and 
are therefore cobs proper. 

Colors are chiefly bay, although brown, chestnut, gray, and 
roan occur. 

Importance of Size. — The frequency with which motors are 
met on the road and the consequent danger in sending children 



PONY BREEDS 



137 



out unattended make a pony of more size than the typical Shet- 
land in greater demand than formerly. Furthermore, Welsh 
ponies are really useful and need not be confined to children's 
use. A smart pair, properly appointed, is well adapted to ladies' 
use. 



THE HACKNEY PONY 



The Hackney pony is a representative Hackney under 14 
hands, 2 inches (Fig - . 95), eligible to the same registration and 




Fig. 95. — A Hackney pony stallion; a typical representative of the Hackney breed, under 
the pony limit of stature. 

frequently bred in similar lines on one side as are full-sized 
Hackneys. As Hackneys have been used in the improvement of 
the gait and action of the Welsh breed, there has no doubt been 
a reciprocal cross in the making of Hackney ponies. Some Welsh 
breeding in the dams of registered Hackney ponies is not uncom- 
mon nor prohibited by the rules of registry. 

Show Ponies. — Hackney ponies are the smartest thing in 
horse form, possessing all the flash and excessive action of their 
larger namesakes in an exaggerated degree. A distinction should 



138 TYPES AND BREEDS 

be drawn, however, between a child's pony and a show pony, and 
few of the sensational Hackney ponies of the show ring inspire 
much confidence in their trustworthiness for children. On the 
other hand, there is a well-marked preference expressed for the 
larger ponies, if thoroughly reliable, as mounts for juvenile 
equestrians, the number of which is increasing. 

OTHER PONY BREEDS 

Other pony types or strains to which reference is sometimes 
made but for which no studbooks exist, in this country at least, 
are the Exmoor, Dartmoor, ISTew Forest, Cumberland, and West- 
moreland of England ; the Connemara of Ireland ; the Galloway 
and Highland ponies of Scotland ; and Arabs under 14 hands, 
2 inches, as many of them are. 

REVIEW 

1. What is believed to be the foundation stock from which all pony 

breeds are derived? 

2. Which of the pony breeds has been most influenced by environment 

and how? 

3. What is the difference in the accepted type of Shetlands in America 

and Great Britain and how is it accounted for? 

4. To what breed characteristics does the Shetland owe its universal 

popularity ? 

5. Describe the origin of the Welsh pony. 

6. What out-crosses have been made and why? 

7. What larger type is the typical Welsh pony the miniature of ? 

8. What classification of Welsh ponies and cobs is made? 

9. What is the ■ Hackney pony ; to what purpose are they chiefly 

devoted? 
10. Name the other pony stocks. 



CHAPTER XI 

JUDGING HORSES 

Purpose. — Judging is selection ; the means by which the 
breeder molds forms by mating the approved and culling out 
the undesirable individuals. It should not be understood to mean 
the placing of awards in the show ring only, although that is a 
most important function of the judge, imposing upon him the 
responsibility of establishing ideals and standards which are to 
lead or mislead the rank and file of breeders. The successful 
buyer or breeder must be a competent judge, whether he has 
ever placed a ribbon in a show ring or not. 

What Judging Involves. — Judging is more than measuring 
to a, standard or the analysis of the individuals under considera- 
tion ; the element of comparison must figure in the observations, 
from which definite conclusions can be drawn. It is the balanc- 
ing of the sum total of merit and deficiency of one individual 
against that of another, after the same fashion that a judge on 
the bench weighs all the evidence before returning a verdict. 
There are capable buyers of market horses, who, in car load after 
car load, will not have a. poor one, yet they would not essay the 
task of designating the first, second, third, and fourth choice in 
any one car lot. They have a definite standard in mind by which 
they can accept or reject, with unerring accuracy, but when it 
becomes necessary to arraign an especially good head and neck 
but rather defective hocks of one against a good back but poor 
feet of another, they fail. Yet selection in breeding and buying 
most frequently involves the choice of one from among several, 
as does the ranking of show entries. 

Accuracy and Rapidity.— The dispatch with which decisions 
are arrived at is second only to the accuracy of the decisions 
themselves. The man who stands at the sales ring side and buys 
at the rate of a horse a minute must have rapid, accurate decision ; 
so must he who picks his short leet and ultimate winners from a 
class of half a hundred stallions. The expert is able to place an 

139 



140 TYPES AND BREEDS 

entire class of show horses or to pick out a car load in the time 
required by the novice to score one individual. The former has 
a fixed standard and a trained eye, which enable him to discern 
instantly any deviations from his standard. 

Furthermore, he recognizes the law of correlation and goes 
by indices, largely, without delaying to consider each detail 
minutely. One feature or part is correlated with another, while 
to a third it may be extremely opposed. Dimensions of the same 
class are correlated, for instance, while those of opposite classes 
are related as extreme. A long legged horse is also long in neck, 
body, and stride, but is proportionately narrow and shallow 
bodied ; a horse in which width is marked will be short and deep 
bodied, with a short, thick neck, low set 'on his legs, and having 
a short but perhaps trappy stride. 

A systematic method of making observations contributes both 
to accuracy and dispatch in judging. By this means each look 
is made to count, repetitions or omissions are avoided, the pro- 
portions and relations of the parts are kept in mind, and a more 
comprehensive conception of the whole is obtained. 

System of Examining. — The most logical system of exami- 
nation begins with a view of the horse from in front, noting the 
temperament and disposition as indicated by the expression of 
the countenance, all features of the head, the width and depth of 
chest, the station, the direction and conformation of the forelegs 
and feet. Then passing to the side, near side usually, consider 
the stature and scale, length or compactness, station, depth (espe- 
cially in the flank), the carriage and shape of head and neck, the 
shortness and levelness of the top line, the length and straight- 
ness of under line, height and shape of the withers, the slope of 
shoulder, direction and conformation of forelegs and feet, the 
back, rib, loin, flank, coupling, croup, tail, stifle, thigh, direction 
and conformation of hind legs and feet. From the rear the sym- 
metry, levelness, width and rotundity of hips, fulness of thighs 
and quarters, direction and conformation of hind legs and feet 
may be determined. Viewing from the opposite side to confirm 
the original side view would complete the examination of the 
horse standing. 

He should then be moved awav from the observer, in order 



JUDGING HORSES 141 

that the directness and rapidity of his stride, especially behind, 
may be seen. Then as he comes back, or " meets you," note the 
directness, rapidity, and freedom of the stride in front, the bold- 
ness, courage, and manners displayed. As he is led past deter- 
mine the length, the height, spring, regularity, and balance of 
the stride, together with the placing or set of the horse in action. 
An expert judge may seem careless of and indifferent to any 
system, yet this very manner may have been acquired from long 
practice, in a systematic way. 

A show ring judge should not act without good and sufficient 
reasons. He should have the courage of his convictions and be 
able to give a full account of the whys and wherefores of his 
work. The wisdom of an award appears very different to on- 
lookers at the ring side many times, with the light of the judge's 
reasons thrown upon it. 

Features to Consider in Judging Horses. — The features to 
which the judge should give special consideration in making his 
observations may be summarized as follows: 

1. General Appearance : (a) Height, (&) weight, (c) style, 
(d) symmetry, (e) color and markings. 

2. Form: (a) Station (setting on legs), (b) width, (c) 
depth, (d) compactness, (e) contour. 

3. Conformation. (As outlined in Chapter II.) 

4. Quality: (a) Hide and hair, (6) bone, (c) finish, (d) 
general refinement. 

5. Substance: (a) Proportion of weight to height, (&) bone, 
(c) muscling. 

6. Constitution: (a) Chest and abdominal capacity, (b) 
evidence of thrift and vigor. 

7. Condition: (a) Degree of fatness, (b) fitness for work. 

8. Way of Going. (As outlined in Chapter III.) 

9. Age: (a) Determination of, (b) significance of. 

10. Soundness: (a) Examination for, (6) importance of. 

11. Temperament and Disposition. 

SCORE CARD 

The score card consists of a word picture of the ideal horse 
in which a numerical value is attached to each part for the pur- 



142 TYPES AND BREEDS 

pose of indicating its relative importance. The hock is a no 
more essential part of the horse's anatomy than the forearm, 
yet the defects to which the hock is subject are so much more 
numerous, and their effect on the serviceability of the horse of so 
much more importance, that it is deserving of more careful con- 
sideration. On this basis the hock is allotted six units or counts, 
the forearm two. 

Scoring is the application of the score card as a standard of 
merit to the individual, for the purpose of determining and 
expressing numerically his degree of perfection. Applied suc- 
cessively to a number of individuals, it affords a means of deter- 
mining their relative merits. However, this system is not appli- 
cable to show ring judging or sales ring selection. The chief use 
of the score card is in the classroom, where continued practice 
in scoring affords the best means of training the eye in making 
accurate observations, while there is being acquired, at the same 
time, a mind picture of the ideal. Once the ideal expressed on 
the score card is indelibly fixed in the mind, the card may be 
given up and the mental picture take its place as a standard of 
judgment. In the development of good judgment the score card 
is indispensable, but for the practice of judging it is of little use. 
Condensed or summarized score cards have been arranged which 
facilitate scoring for such objects as the advanced registry of 
dairy cattle and other purposes, but for students' use the full, 
detailed accounting of every part is essential. 

The Draft Horse Score Card. — Following is the scale of 
points and standard of excellence for the draft horse : 

General Appearance. — 16. Counts 

1. Weight 

2. Height .' 

3. Form — low station, wide, deep, compact, massive 4 

4. Substance — bone ample, joints broad, proportioned to scale 4 

5. Quality — bone dense and clean, tendons and joints sharply defined, 

leg broad and flat, hide and hair fine, refinement of head, 
finish 4 

6. Temperament — energetic, disposition good, intelligent 4 

Head and Neck. — 7. 

7. Head — size and dimensions, in proportion, clear cut features, 

straight face line, wide angle in lower jaw 1 



JUDGING HORSES 143 

8. Muzzle — broad, nostrils large but not dilated, lips thin, even, 

trim 1 

9. Eyes — prominent orbit; large, full, bright, clear; lid thin, even 

curvature 1 

10. Forehead — broad, full 1 

11. Ears — medium size, fine, pointed, set close, carried alert 1 

12. Neck — long, muscular but not thick, well crested, throttle well cut 

out, head well set on 2 

Forehand. — 24. 

13. Shoulders — long, sloping, smooth, muscular 2 

14. Arm — short, muscular, elbow in 2 

15. Forearm — wide, muscular 2 

16. Knees — straight, wide, deep, strongly supported 2 

17. Canons — short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set well 

back 2 

18. Fetlocks — wide, tendons well back, straight, well supported 2 

19. Pasterns — long, oblique (45 degrees), smooth, strong 2 

20. Feet — large, round, uniform, straight, slope of wall parallel to 

slope of pastern, sole concave, bars strong, frogs large and 
elastic; heels wide, full, one-third height of toe; horn dense, 
smooth, dark color 6 

21. Legs — direction viewed from in front, a perpendicular line dropped 

from the point of the shoulder should divide the leg and foot into 
two lateral halves. Viewed from the side, a perpendicular line 
dropped from the tuberosity of the scapula should pass through 
the centre of the elbow-joint and meet the ground at the centre 
of the foot 4 

Body.— 11. 

22. Withers — well defined but muscular 2 

23. Chest — wide, deep 2 

24. Ribs — well sprung, long, close 2 

25. Back — short, straight, strong, broad 2 

26. Loin — short, broad, strongly coupled 2 

27. Flank — deep, full, long, low under line 1 

Hindquarters . — 32 . 

28. Hips — wide, level, muscular 2 

29. Croup — long, level, muscular 2 

30. Tail — attached high, well carried 1 

31. Thighs — deep, muscular 2 

32. Stifles — broad, thick, muscular 2 

33. Gaskins — wide, muscular 2 

34. Hocks — straight, wide, point prominent, deep, clean cut, smooth, 

well supported 6 

35. Canons — short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set well 

back 2 

36. Fetlocks — wide, tendons well set back, straight, well supported. . 2 

37. Pasterns — long, oblique (50 degrees), smooth, strong 3 

38. Feet — large, round (slightly less than in front), uniform, straight, 

slope of wall parallel to slope of pastern, sole concave, bars 
strong, frog large, elastic; heels wide, full, one-third height of 
toe; horn dense, smooth, dark color 4 



144 TYPES AND BREEDS 

39. Legs — direction viewed from the rear, a perpendicular line 

dropped from the point of the buttock should divide the leg and 
foot into lateral halves; viewed from the side, this same line 
should touch the point of the hock and meet the ground some 
little distance back of the heel. A perpendicular line dropped 
from the hip-joint should meet the ground near the centre of 
the foot 4 

Way of Going. — 10. 

40. Walk — straight, strong, active ' 6 

41. Trot — powerful, free, moderate action 4 

Total 100 



The Heavy Harness Horse Score Card. — The following is 
the standard of excellence and scale of points for the heavy 
harness horse : 

General Appearance. — 12. Counts 

1. Height 

2. Weight 

3. Form — close, full made, smooth turned, symmetrical 4 

4. Quality — bone clean, dense, fine, yet indicating substance, ten- 

dons and joints sharply defined, hide and hair fine, general re- 
finement, finish 4 

5. Temperament — proud, bold, stylish, disposition good, intelligent. 4 

Head and Neck. — 7. 

6. Head — size and dimensions in proportion, clear cut features, 

straight face line, wide angle in lower jaw 1 

7. Muzzle — fine, nostrils large, lips thin, trim, even 1 

8. Eyes — prominent orbit; large, full, bright, clear; lid thin, even 

curvature 1 

9. Forehead — broad, full 1 

10. Ears — medium size, fine, pointed, set close, carried alert 1 

11. Neck — long, lofty carriage, high crest, throttle well cut out, 

head well set on 2 

Forehand.— 22. 

12. Shoulders — long, oblique, smooth 2 

13. Arms — short, muscular, carried well forward 1 

14. Forearm — broad, muscular 1 

15. Knees — straight, wide, deep, strongly supported 2 

16. Canons — short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set well back. 2 

17. Fetlocks — wide, tendons well back, straight, well supported 2 

18. Pasterns — long, oblique (45 degrees), smooth, strong 2 

19. Feet — large, round, uniform, straight, slope of wall parallel to 

slope of pastern, sole concave, bars strong, frog large, elastic, 
heels wide, full, one-third height of toe, horn dense, smooth, 
dark color 6 



JUDGING HORSES 145 

20. Legs — direction viewed from in front, a perpendicular line dropped 

from the point of the shoulder should divide the leg and foot 
into two lateral halves; viewed from the side, a perpendicular 
line dropped from the tuberosity of the scapula should pass 
through the centre of the elbow-joint and meet the ground at 
the centre of the foot 4 

Body— 11. 

21. Withers — well set up, narrow, extending well back 2 

22. Chest— wide, deep 2 

23. Ribs — well sprung, long, close 2 

24. Back — short, straight, strong, broad 2 

25. Loin — short, broad, strongly coupled 2 

26. Flank — deep, full, long, low under line 1 

Hindquarters. — 32 

27. Hips — -broad, round, smooth 2 

28. Croup — long, level, round, smooth 2 

29. Tail— set high, well carried 2 

30. Thighs— full, muscular 2 

31. Stifles — broad, full, muscular 2 

32. Gaskins — broad, muscular 2 

33. Hocks — straight, wide, point prominent, deep, clean cut, smooth, 

well supported 6 

34. Canons — short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set well back 2 

35. Fetlocks — wide, tendons well back, straight, well supported .... 2 

36. Pasterns — long, oblique (50 degrees), smooth, strong 2 

37. Feet — large, round (slightly less than in front), uniform, straight, 

slope of wall parallel to slope of pastern, sole concave, bars 
strong, frog large and elastic, heels wide, full one-third height of 
toe, horn dense, smooth, dark color 4 

38. Legs — direction viewed from the rear, a perpendicular line 

dropped from the point of the buttock should divide the leg and 
foot into lateral halves; viewed from the side, this same line 
should touch the point of the hock and meet the ground some 
little distance back of the heel. A perpendicular line dropped 
from the hip-joint should meet the ground near the centre of 
the foot 4 

Way of Going. — 16. 

39. Walk — straight, snappy, springy, proud, stylish 6 

40. Trot — in line, bold, flashy, extreme flexion of knees and hocks, 

balanced, regular 10 

Total 100 

The Light Harness Horse Score Card. — Following is the 
scale of points for the light harness horse : 

General Appeara?ice. — 12. Counts 

1. Height 

2. Weight 

3. Form — rangy, deep, lithe, angular 4 

4. Quality — bone clean, dense, fine, yet indicating substance, ten- 

dons and joints sharply defined, hide and hair fine, general 
refinement • • • • ■_ 4 

5. Temperament — nervous, active, disposition good, intelligent 4 

10 



146 TYPES AND BREEDS 

Head and Neck. — 7. 

6. Head — size and dimensions in proportion, clear cut features, 

straight face line, wide angle in lower jaw 1 

7. Muzzle — fine, nostrils large, lips thin, trim, even 1 

8. Eyes — prominent orbit; large, full, bright, clear; lid thin, even 

curvature 1 

9. Forehead — broad, full 1 

10. Ears — medium sized, fine, pointed, set close, carried alert 1 

11. Neck — long, lean, crest well defined, extended carriage, well cut 

out in the throttle, head well set on 2 

Forehand. — 23. 

12. Shoulders — long, oblique, smooth 2 

13. Arms — short, muscular, carried well forward 1 

14. Forearm — long, broad, muscular 2 

15. Knees — straight, wide, deep, strongly supported 2 

16. Canons — short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set well 

back , 2 

17. Fetlocks — wide, tendons well back, straight, well supported 2 

18. Pasterns — long, oblique (45 degrees), smooth, strong 2 

19. Feet — large, round, uniform, straight, slope of wall parallel to 

slope of pastern, sole concave, bars strong, frog large, elastic, 
heels wide, full, one-third height of toe, horn dense, smooth, 
dark color 6 

20. Legs — direction viewed from in front, a perpendicular line dropped 

from the point of the shoulder should divide the leg and foot into 
two lateral halves. Viewed from the side, a perpendicular line 
dropped from the tuberosity of the scapula should pass through 
the centre of the elbow-joint and meet the ground at the centre 
of the foot 4 

Body.— 11. 

21. Withers — well set up, narrow, extending well back 2 

22. Chest — medium width, deep ' 2 

23. Ribs — well sprung, long, close 2 

24. Back — short, straight, strong, broad 2 

25. Loins — short, broad, strongly coupled 2 

26. Flank — deep, full, long, low under line 1 

Hindquarters. — 3 1 . 

27. Hips — broad, round, smooth 2 

28. Croup — long, level, smooth 2 

29. Tail — set high, well carried 1 

30. Thighs— full, muscular 2 

31. Stifles — broad, full, muscular 2 

32. Gaskins — broad, muscular 2 

33. Hocks — straight, wide, point prominent, deep, clean cut, smooth, 

well supported 6 

34. Canons — short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set well 

back 2 

35. Fetlocks — wide, tendons well back, straight, well supported 2 

36. Pasterns — long, oblique (50 degrees), smooth, strong 2 

37. Feet — large, round (slightly less than in front), uniform, straight, 

slope of wall parallel to slope of pastern, sole concave, bars 
strong, frog large and elastic, heels wide, full, one-third height 
of toe, horn dense, smooth, dark color 4 



JUDGING HORSES 147 

38. Legs — direction viewed from the rear, a perpendicular line 

dropped from the point of the buttock should divide the leg and 
foot into lateral halves; viewed from the side, this same line 
should touch the point of the hock and meet the ground some 
little distance back of the heel. A perpendicular line dropped 
from the hip-joint should meet the ground near the centre of 
the foot 4 

Way of Going. — 16. 

39. Walk — long, free stride 6 

40. Trot — long, rapid, straight, reachy stride 10 

Total 100 

The Saddle Horse Score Card. — Following is the scale of 
points and standard of excellence for the saddle horse : 

General Appearance. — 12. Counts 

1. Height! 

2. Weight 

3. Form — close but not full made, deep but not broad, symmetrical . 4 

4. Quality — bone clean, dense, fine, yet indicating substance, ten- 

dons and joints sharply defined, hide and hair fine, general 
refinement, finish 4 

5. Temperament — active, disposition good, intelligent 4 

Head and Neck. — 8. 

6. Head — size and dimensions in proportion, clear cut features, 

straight face line, wide angle in lower jaw 1 

7. Muzzle — fine, nostrils large, lips thin, trim, even 1 

8. Eyes — prominent orbit; large, full, bright, clear; lid thin, even 

curvature 1 

9. Forehead — broad, full 1 

10. Ears — medium size, pointed, set close, carried alert 1 

11. Neck — long, supple, well crested, not carried too high, throttle 

well cut out, head well set on 3 

Forehand.— 22. 

12. Shoulders — very long, sloping yet muscular. 3 

13. Arms — short, muscular, carried well forward 1 

14. Forearm — long, broad, muscular 1 

15. Knees — straight, wide, deep, strongly supported 2 

16. Canons — short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set well 

back 2 

17. Fetlocks — wide, tendons well back, straight, well supported 2 

18. Pasterns — long, oblique (45 degrees), smooth, strong 2 

19. Feet — large, round, uniform, straight, slope of wall parallel to 

slope of pastern, sole concave, bars strong, frog large, elastic, 
heels wide, full, one-third height of toe, horn dense, smooth, 
dark color 5 

20. Legs — direction viewed from in front, a perpendicular line dropped 

from the point of the shoulder should divide the leg and foot 
into two lateral halves. Viewed from the side, a perpendicu- 
lar line dropped from the tuberosity of the scapula should pass 
through the centre of the elbow-joint and meet the ground at 
the centre of the foot 4 



148 TYPES AND BREEDS 

Body.— 12. 

21. Withers — high, muscular, well finished at top, extending well into 

back 3 

22. Chest — medium wide, deep . 2 

23. Ribs — well sprung, long, close 2 

24. Back — short, straight, strong, broad 2 

25. Loin — short, broad, muscular, strongly coupled 2 

26. Flank— deep, full, long, low under line 1 

Hindquarters. — 3 1 . 

27. Hips — broad, round, smooth 2 

28. Croup — long, level, round, smooth 2 

29. Tail — set high, well carried 2 

30. Thighs — full, muscular 2 

31. Stifles — broad, full, muscular 2 

32. Gaskins — broad, muscular 2 

33. Hocks — straight, wide, point prominent, deep, clean cut, smooth, 

well supported 5 

34. Canons — short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set well back. 2 

35. Fetlocks — wide, tendons well back, straight, well supported 2 

36. Pasterns — long, oblique (50 degrees), smooth, strong 2 

37. Feet — large, round (slightly less than in front), uniform, straight, 

slope of wall parallel to slope of pastern, sole concave, bars 
strong, frog large and elastic, heels wide, full, one-third height 
of toe, horn dense, smooth, dark color 4 

38. Legs — direction viewed from the rear, a perpendicular line 

dropped from the point of the buttock should divide the leg and 
foot into lateral halves; viewed from the side, this same line 
should touch the point of the hock and meet the ground some 
little distance back of the heel. A perpendicular line dropped 
from the hip-joint should meet the ground near the centre of 
the foot 4 

Way of Going. — 15. 

39. Walk — rapid, flat footed, in line 5 

40. Trot — free, straight, smooth, springy, going well off hocks, not 

extreme knee fold 5 

41. Canter — slow, collected, either lead, no cross canter 5 

Total 100 

SOUNDNESS 

A horse is sound provided there be not a partial or total loss 
of function, preventing of likely to prevent him from perform- 
ing the ordinary duties of his class. 

The real significance of soundness is quite generally misun- 
derstood by the users of horses, much to their own disadvantage 
and to the misfortune of many an unsound horse. The impor- 
tance of an existing unsoundness is directly proportionate to the 
extent to which it incapacitates a horse for the service to which 
he is otherwise best adapted. If it causes him little or no incon- 



JUDGING HORSES 149 

venienee, and is not liable to, it is of little or no consequence. 
The technically sound horse is an exceptional individual and 
has less actual additional value over the servieeably sound horse 
than is generally credited to him. 

On the other hand, the nature or extent of an unsoundness 
may he such as to cause the total disability of a horse either at 
present or in the future. Serviceable soundness is all that it is 
practical to seek or require; and just what constitutes service- 
able soundness is arbitrarily determined by the nature of the 
work which the horse is expected to do. If more thought were 
given to the real causes of unsoundness, present and prospective, 
and less to its technical existence, it would probably give less 
annoyance. 

The durability of any machine is a matter of construction, 
covering the grade of materials used, the assembling of all parts, 
the alignment and adjustment of all bearings and wearing parts 
in order to minimize friction, distribute wear, and to facilitate 
operation in general. Allow any little cog to slip or an adjust- 
ment to become displaced, and either the whole machine is 
rendered useless or its operation is greatly impaired. 

The Equine Machine. — It is so with the equine mechanism. 
Most unsoundnesses have their origin in structural defects or 
imperfections. The spavin and the curb make their appearance 
on the crooked hind leg as a result of the cuneiform bone and 
curb ligament being called upon to do more than their normal 
share of the work of the leg, on account, of the deflection in the 
line in which weight is borne and power applied. 

Side bones are most common on the outer quarters of wide- 
fronted draft horses, because such horses are inclined to be " toe 
narrow,'' which brings the outer quarter nearer to the centre of 
weight bearing, thereby imposing weight and wear which should 
be borne by the other quarter. As a consequence the cartilage 
ossifies or changes to bone. 

If an existing unsoundness has apparently developed, inde- 
pendent of predisposing causes of conformation, and does not 
impair the horse's usefulness, it is of less account than when 
the causative defect in conformation is apparent but no actual 
unsoundness exists yet. Tn the first place, a repetition of the 



150 TYPES AND BREEDS 

unusual condition to which the unsoundness is due is not likely ; 
while in the second case, the predisposing cause is continually 
operative, and the ultimate development of actual unsoundness 
is well nigh inevitable. Once developed, its condition is repeat- 
edly aggravated by the same means which originally induced it. 

Rejecting for Unsoundness. — It is not consistent to reject a 
horse, in all other respects suitable for one's purpose, because he 
cannot be certified absolutely sound, only to finally accept on the 
strength of a certificate of soundness a horse woefully deficient 
in regard to most other requirements. Counsel of the veterina- 
rian should be on the true importance of the unsoundness, if it 
exists, rather than for its mere detection. 

Soundness is but one of the attributes which render a horse 
of sendee. Horses unsound in some degree are giving perfectly 
satisfactory service in all fields in which horses are engaged, and, 
so long as that is the case, it is unjust to the horses and detri- 
mental to the owners to discard them for a mere technicality. 
Provided a horse goes sound in spite of some unsoundness to 
which he is subject, and promises to continue so to go, the un- 
soundness should not outweigh in importance the other essentials 
of a good horse, as type, conformation, and performance. 

Age. — The Determination of Age. — There is nothing mys- 
terious nor empirical about the determination of the age by the 
teeth. Up to five years, it is simply a matter of the eruption of 
the teeth, which in the normal individual follows the same reg- 
ular course that characterizes all other physiological processes. 
After the permanent teeth are all in, the indications are the 
result of wear, which is uniformly accomplished in the normal 
mouth on account of the extreme durability of the individual 
teeth and their arrangement. 

Certain general features must be understood before any at- 
tempt is made to differentiate the appearance of the mouth at 
various years. The permanent teeth may be distinguished, after 
their eruption, from the milk teeth, which are shed as the perma- 
nent teeth come through, by greater size, a broader neck showing 
no constriction, perpendicular, parallel grooves and ridges on 
their face, and a whiter color. 

The incisor teeth, which are the ones depended upon because 



JUDGING HORSES 151 

they are most easily exposed to view, are originally oval-shaped 
at the table or wearing end, gradually becoming triangular to- 
ward the root. The longitudinal dimensions of the teeth are 
curved, with the convexity forward, toward the lips, the con- 
cavity toward the mouth. The table itself is cupped out in the 
centre by a depression, into which the enamel of the tooth dips. 
As wear commences, the surface enamel is worn off, leaving two 
distinct enamel rings, one around the margin of the table and the 
other around the cup. This cup itself becomes gradually more 
shallow until it is finally worn almost completely away. As 
wear on the table removes more and more of the end of the tooth, 
the level of the pulp cavity in the centre of the tooth is finally 
reached, and the exposed tip of this canal appears between what 
is left of the cup and the front of the tooth. Other sequences of 
the continued wearing away of the tooth are the changes in out- 
line of its transverse diameter, becoming, first, more oval from 
side to side, then more distinctly triangular as wear continues 
toward the root. Also, as the mouth end of the tooth is worn 
away the level of the tables and their contact is maintained by 
the tissues closing in behind the root and forcing the tooth for- 
ward. This gives the angle of the arch of the incisors less curve 
and more slant, at the same time rendering the margin and out- 
line of the jaw sharper and flatter. As the arch becomes more 
slanting, the surfaces of tfre teeth meet at a different angle, and, 
in the case of the corners, the lower teeth do not wear clear to 
the back margins of the uppers, so that a hook or notch is grad- 
ually formed, worn away, and formed again at different years. 
These, with the eruption of the canines, which occurs in males at 
from five to six years, are the principal changes upon which the 
age is reckoned. It remains now to indicate just what changes 
are characteristic of the different yearly periods (Figs. 96-116). 
Tlie Importance of Age. — Age plays an important part, in 
determining a horse's market value. Statistics show the best 
selling age to be from five to eight years, while, on the 
contrary, experience has demonstrated that the best wearing 
and most serviceable age is from eight to twelve. After a horse 
passes eight and has had some city wear, the market classes 
him as second-handed and discounts his value accord i mil v. 



152 



TYPES AND BREEDS 




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Fig. 97. — Longitudinal and median section of a permanent inferior pincer (enlarged). 
FA, anterior face; FP, posterior face; C, cement; E, enamel; /, ivory; PL, pulp cavity; 
CU, cup; T, table; R, root. 



154 



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This is more in. response to demands of buyers than to any real 
depreciation in the serviceability of the horse. The average 
horseman reckons the probable period of usefulness as the dif- 
ference between the present age and the age to which the average 
horse lives ; but there are too many other influences which may 
impair a horse's usefulness or terminate his existence altogether! 
to make this a sound line of reasoning. A horse that has with-: 




Fig. 117. — This horse haa a record of twenty-three years in the delivery service of a 
large city department store. The reason is evident in the superior breeding and conforma- 
tion which he manifests. 



stood ordinary wear so well that he is comparatively fresh and 
sound at twelve years of age gives promise of having more years 
of usefulness ahead of him than the average six-year-old just 
from the country. Both city stables and the farm afford numer- 
ous instances of horses that have been from sixteen to twenty 
years on the job and still give little evidence of the infirmities 
thatare supposed to come with advancing years (Fig. 117). The 



174 



TYPES AND BREEDS 




Fig. 118. — This horse has served eighteen years in the city as an ambulance horse and\ by 
virtue of his superior type, conformation, and intelligence, is still serviceable. 




Fig. 119. — This horse, off type and of inferior conformation, with little sense, has been 
rendered unserviceable by the same work in one year. 



JUDGING HORSES 175 

mechanical excellence of conformation is a much more important 
factor in determining the period of usefulness of a horse than his 
age (Figs, 118 and 119). 

Disposition and intelligence have much to do with a horse's 
usefulness. Together they determine the character of his per- 
formance, within the limits of his possibilities as fixed by type, 
conformation, and soundness. A good, honest, game horse will 
oftentimes give more satisfactory service in spite of some phys- 
ical infirmity than a sound horse that is sour, crabbed, or deficient 
in horse sense. Whether one rides or drives for profit or pleasure, 
that end is greatly enhanced by the cheerful responsiveness with 
which the horses do their work. Horses are being more and 
more exclusively used for sporting purposes and to realize the 
greatest delight from a ride or a drive the horse should enter 
fully into the spirit of the occasion. 

Both intelligence and disposition are reflected in the horse's 
countenance — the expression of the eye, the poise of the ear, and 
his general behavior. Some horses are much more demonstrative 
than others. 

REVIEW 

1. What are the responsibilities of the judge? 

2. What does judging involve beside an analysis of the individuals 

under consideration ? 

3. Of what assistance is the law of correlation to the practical judge? 

4. What is the importance of a system of examination in judging? 

Outline the most logical system. 

5. What features are to be considered in judging? 

6. Discuss the proper use of the score card. 

7. Upon what will the importance of an unsoundness depend? 

8. What is the relation of conformation to the possible occurrence of 

unsoundness? 

9. How do the teeth come to have a definite appearance at different 

ages ? 
10. What can be said in defence of the old horse? 



PART III 

THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING 



12 



CHAPTER XII 



THE BREEDING OF HORSES 



The breeding of horses is done on a limited scale as a side 
issue to a general farming proposition, more commonly than the 
breeding of any other class of stock. The majority of farmers 
raise only a few colts, the bulk of the market supply being pro- 
duced on a small rather than a large scale. 

Ideals Differ Geographically. — The corn belt farmer is most 
concerned with the weight of a horse, and scorns all that cannot 
work, no matter how proficient they may be in other lines of 
service. On the other hand, the Kentuckian is for a " model " 
horse, possessing quality in the extreme and capable of a sporty 
performance, either in the show ring or on the race track, be he 
saddle or harness horse. The Southerner has no more time for 
a " bull " of a drafter than his contemporary of the Middle 
West has for the " dude " show or iniquitous race horse. In 
many parts of Virginia the first thought concerning a horse is 
" How well can he jump ? " and it is regarded as desecration of 
blood to breed to anything but a Thoroughbred stallion. The 
average Eastern breeder measures all other types to a road horse 
standard, and he may be found stinting common farm mares to 
a little crooked legged pacer that may happen to be the idol of 
the community since winning the county race at the last fair. It 
is all a matter of difference in the point of view, and in some 
communities this point is so indelibly fixed as to make it unwise 
to advocate a change, but rather to recommend the pursuit of the 
local ideal in the most intelligent manner. There is a ready 
market for a good horse of almost any type, and a breeder will 
usually do best by that which he favors most. It may be imprac- 
ticable, for instance, to force the breeding of draft horses on the 
Kentucky farmer whose family traditions, intuitive genius, and 
available blood all make for a very different stamp of horse. 

Investment. — Horse breeding requires a larger initial in- 
vestment for a longer time than most other live stock enter- 

179 



180 



THE PKINCIPLES OF BREEDING 



prises, but if well managed yields a proportionately greater 
return. 

Principles of Breeding. — Breeding is the direction and con- 
trol of the inherent life forces, heredity and variation, by means 
of selection and mating. Its practice offers a means of regulat- 
ing the progeny by control of the parentage. Improvement 
should be the motive, it being something more than a mere mul- 
tiplication of numbers in the next generation. 

The forces involved are heredity, by means of which char- 
acters are transmitted from generation to generation ; and varia- 
tion, through the agency of which new characters are introduced. 
The natural tendency in reproduction is toward variation, or the 
production of unlike individuals, with heredity acting as a 
brake or check, opposed. The more intense the hereditary force, 
the less marked the variation. The strength of the hereditary 
force, so far as a specific character is concerned, is determined 
by the extent to which that character is represented in the an- 
cestry. The greater the number of individual ancestors there 
are which possess it, and the greater the degree in which it is 
possessed, the stronger the likelihood of its being transmitted. 

Heredity is, therefore, not a matter which involves only the 
individuals mated, but all those ancestors whose characters and 
hereditary forces the individuals in question possess. If the pre- 
potency of all individuals in the ancestry were equal, the relative 
influence of succeeding generations and individual ancestors 
would be in accordance with Galton's law as shown in the fol- 
lowing table : * 

Effective Heritage Contributed by Each Generation and by Each Separate An- 
cestor According to the Law of Ancestral Heredity as Stated by Galton. 



Generation 
backward 


Effective contri- 
bution of 
each generation 


Number of ances- 
tors involved 


Effective contri- 
bution of 
each ancestor 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 


Y 2 or 0.5 

Y A or (0.5)2 

1/8 or (0.5) 3 

1/16 or (0.5) 4 

1/32 or (0.5) 5 


2 

4 

8 

16 

32 


M or 25.0% 
1/16 or 6.25% 
1/64 or 1.56 + % 
1/256 or 0.39 + % 
1/1024 or 0.09+% 



' Davenport, " The Principles of Breeding. " 



THE BREEDING OF HORSES 181 

There arc usually a few individual ancestors who, by their 
great prepotency, dominate the ancestry and have more than 
their regular fractional influence in determining the nature of 
the progeny. The more of such impressive ancestors there are, 
provided their impressiveness is along the same line, the stronger 
the transmission of their characters will become. Line, or in- 
breeding, is practiced with this in view, the same individuals 
being used as many times as possible, thus intensifying the 
hereditary transmission of their characters. 

The germ plasm, representing the union of the two sex cells, 
is the physical basis of heredity. It represents both the char- 
acters of the ancestry which are dominant in this generation, and 
will therefore be manifested by the individual developed from 
the germ plasm, and the potential characters of the entire an- 
cestry, which may remain recessive in this generation and not 
be manifested in this particular individual, but may, in the next 
succeeding generations, become dominant, some in one indi- 
vidual descendant and some in another. Thus the unlikeness of 
brothers may be accounted for. 

Transmission is, therefore, not from the individual parent 
but from the ancestry through the parent. The individual mani- 
fests but a part of the characters which he inherits, and is con- 
sequently capable of transmitting characters which he himself 
does not possess. All the possibilities of transmission can be 
learned only by a study of the ancestry. Unknown individuals 
in the ancestry introduce unknown possibilities into the progeny, 
hence the advantage of the pure-bred parent, the known excel- 
lence of whose ancestry is established. A superior but short-bred 
individual may happen to manifest all the good qualities of his 
or her ancestors but transmit none of them. A lack of uniformity 
in the ancestry is sure to result in a miscellaneous progeny. 
However, registration and pure breeding are not sufficient, as 
inferiority possessed in uniform degree by the ancestors will 
render the progeny of a correspondingly low order of merit; and 
even some pure-bred and registered horses are inferior in both 
individuality and ancestry. 

Pedigree is but a record of the ancestry, and the value of the 
pedigree, provided it is complete in recording all ancestors of 



182 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING 

the first five or six generations, is in proportion to the merit of 
the individuals recorded. 

Prepotency is the breeding power of a stallion or mare, 
measured by the degree with which their likeness is transmitted 
to their get. It should be distinguished from fecundity, which 
is the reproductive power, measured by the regularity with 
which progeny are begotten by the sire or produced by the dam. 
Prepotency is determined by the uniformity of the ancestry, 
which, in turn, is most intensively insured by line and inbreed- 
ing. There is, furthermore, a difference in the prepotency of 
individuals similarly bred. 

Fecundity is marked in certain families, showing its hered- 
itary and transmissible nature, and is frequently associated with 
longevity. The individual element is also a factor in fecundity. 

Line breeding is the mating of two individuals having a 
common ancestor but a few generations removed. It is prac- 
ticed for the purpose of intensifying the hereditary force derived 
from certain individuals. It is a compromise on inbreeding. 

Inbreeding is the mating of brother and sister, sire and 
daughter, son and dam, thus eliminating all but the blood from 
certain individuals. It is rarely practiced by horse breeders. 

Cross-breeding is the mating of pure-bred individuals but 
of different breeds. Indiscriminate cross-breeding is to be con- 
demned, but intelligently conducted it is justifiable for certain 
purposes, as in the production of hunters in this country. Cross- 
breeding has the effect of producing variation. The more radical 
the cross the more extreme and uncertain the variation. It is 
resorted to for several purposes : ( 1 ) Either to restore vigor and 
fecundity to stock that has been bred too long in one line or 
under the same .environment ; ( 2 ) to graft on one breed some 
desirable characters of another; (3) to blend, permanently, the 
breed characters of two breeds ; or simply to combine these char- 
acters in the progeny of one generation. To this end it may 
consist either of making a single infusion of the blood of an 
alien breed, as the Thoroughbred cross on the Standardbred ; of 
making cross-breds the basis of a new breed, as in the foundation 
of the French Coach from the demi sang ; or continuing to cross 
breed without interbreeding the cross breeds, as in the production 



THE BREEDING OF HORSES 183 

of the original demi sang (French half-breed) for army service; 
also in the production of hunters. 

Most uniform results are obtained when the hereditary tend- 
encies of the two breeds crossed incline in the same general 
direction, as in mating a Standardbred and a Saddle horse, or a 
Thoroughbred with either, and are least satisfactory when radi- 
cally opposed hereditary forces are united, as in breeding a 
trotter to a Shire. Such extreme crosses may prohibit any blend 
of characters and often result in a colt possessed of a draft 
horse head and body on a trotter's legs and feet, or some similar 
combination of the extreme characters of each. 

Cross-breeding was attended by much greater advantages 
during the formative periods of our breeds than can be claimed 
for it at the present time. With a particular breed especially 
well adapted to almost all requirements, there is little excuse for 
mixing them up. 

Some of the renovating effects of cross-breeding may be se- 
cured, yet the identity and integrity of the breed maintained, by 
resorting to the so-called climatic out-cross, the mating of indi- 
viduals of the same breed but reared under different conditions 
of environment, as English and American or Australian Thor- 
oughbreds, or Kentucky and California Standardbreds. The 
most extreme system of crossing involves species instead of 
breeds, and is called hybridization. 

Equine hybrids are the mule and the zebroid. The common 
ancestor within the genus, in this case, is so extremely remote 
as to render the hybrids sterile. Bovine hybrids, however, are 
more or less completely fertile, the supposition being that their 
common ancestor was more proximate. 

The nick, commonly referred to by horse breeders, is a 
mating resulting especially favorably in a foal superior to either 
parent. It is supposed to be due to a special affinity of hereditary 
forces which results in a most harmonious blend or union. A 
mare may produce good colts to the service of one stallion, but 
mating with another stallion of equal merit as a sire may result 
in utter failure, so far as the character of the get is concerned. 

Atavism or reversion is the reappearance of the type of a 
remote ancestor or a harking back to a preexisting form. It is 



184 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING 

most likely to follow hybridization, and is exemplified by the line 
back and leg stripes commonly seen on mules. 

A pure bred is, practically, one whose sire and dam are both 
registered. The " purity " of the breeding depends upon the 
eligibility rules of the respective registry associations. Lit- 
erally, a pure bred is one in whom there is no trace of alien 
blood, but such a degree of purity is approached only by the 
breeds of greatest antiquity, as the Thoroughbred and the Arab. 

Grading up is the mating of common bred mares to pure bred 
stallions, or the reverse, producing half-breds. By mating the 
half-breds back to pure breds, of the same breed, the percentage 
increase of the pure blood will follow the proportions of three- 
quarters, seven-eighths, and so on, for each successive generation. 
A horse so bred is called a grade, and the greater the number of 
generations through which the grading-up process has been car- 
ried, the higher the grade. 

A mongrel or scrub is one whose fractional breed identity 
cannot be established. 

Top cross refers to the male line of ancestors — the sire's sire, 
his sire, and thus on back. 

Dams. — First, second, third, and fourth dams represent the 
female line of ancestors — the darn's dam, her dam, etc. 

Brothers in blood are the progeny of mating full brothers 
with full sisters, the same stallion with full sisters or the same 
mare with full brothers. In each case the matins' results in in- 
dividuals whose pedigrees after the first generation are identical. 

Pedigree and Studbook Registration. — In order to keep 
pedigree records complete and accurate, as well as reliable and 
authentic, registry associations representing the different breeds 
have been formed. Entries are made in either alphabetical or 
numerical order, and show the name, date of foaling, description, 
breeder, and owner of the horse, with the name and number of 
sire, and name, number, and usually some of the breeding of 
the dam. These records are published in book form at more or 
less regular periods, annually, if the association does sufficient 
business, and are available to any one at a nominal charge. 

Transfers of ownership of registered horses are required to 
be recorded for the purpose of keeping all records up to date. 



THE BREEDING OF HORSES 185 

A pedigree certificate of registration (Fig. 120) lias no nego- 
tiable value unless properly issued and executed by the officers 
of the association whose seal and signature it bears. Its value, 
even then, is contingent upon the standing of the association. 
Formerly an accredited list of studbooks was issued and vouched 
for by the United States Department of Agriculture, but their 
authorization has since been withdrawn, and the standing of the 
different associations is based on the personnel of their officers 
and members. 

The eligibility rules for registry are drawn up by the asso- 
ciations themselves and are not uniform in their requirements. 
The term " pure-bred," as applied to the different breeds, has 
a significance that is arbitrarily determined by the respective 
associations. For instance, a horse may be " pure-bred " on the 
basis of eligibility to registry in the French Draft Studbook yet 
be ineligible to the Percheron Studbook, and therefore of impure 
Percheron breeding. In the same way a " pure-bred " Morgan 
may not be eligible to Standard registration and, as a matter of 
fact, may possess but a small percentage of Morgan blood, on 
account of the open nature of the Morgan register. 

When a pure-bred, registered horse or mare is bought for 
breeding purposes, the pedigree certificate often plays a more 
important part in the transaction than the horse itself. The 
real value of such a horse lies in the blood lines which he is capa- 
ble of transmitting, and no just claim to these blood lines can be 
made unless verified by a pedigree certificate. Title to breeding 
can be conveyed by no> other means. Many pure-bred stallions 
are deprived of the full credit to which they are entitled through 
the carelessness or indifference of owners in keeping up records 
and transfers. 

Duplicate pedigree registry certificates can be secured upon 
application to the secretaries of the associations and by sub- 
mitting satisfactory evidence that the original has been lost or 
destroyed. 

Eligibility to registration is established by conforming to the 
rules of entry of the registry associations. These rules arc not 
uniform in the different associations, nor are they fixed, but arc 
subject to change whenever authorized by vote of the association. 



186 



THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING 




THE BREEDING OF HORSES 



187 



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188 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING 

Revision of the rules is generally in the direction of increased 
requirements and is justified in the case of comparatively new 
or young breeds which have increased in numbers to a point 
where the old and more liberal rules are no longer necessary. The 
American Trotting Registry Association has already dropped 
rules which during the formative period of the breed were essen- 
tial. It is reported that they contemplate further tightening 
up their requirements by elimination of the " standard by per- 
formance " clause. 

Stallion Legislation. — Stallion license laws have been passed 
by a number of the States. Because of the much longer time and 
greater capital involved in the breeding of horses than of other 
classes of live stock, some legal regulation of the standing of 
stallions for public service, having in view the protection of the 
mare owner and the promotion of the interests of the good breed- 
ing sires, is important. The idea is not new; all foreign coun- 
tries in which horse breeding has made any great advancement 
have either patronized or protected the horse breeding interests 
by statute. The French system is perhaps the most elaborate. 

The French System. — All breeding stallions in France are 
either owned by the government or have government authority 
to stand for service. All privately owned stallions which are 
accepted for service must be free from roaring and moon blind- 
ness or periodic ophthalmia, as determined by inspection to which 
they are required to submit, and this fact is attested by the 
star branded on their necks. Then they are classified according 
to merit. Those of the best class are designated as " approved," 
and many of them are liberally subsidized in order that they may 
be made available to all owners of high class mares ; those which 
are not quite up to the requirements for approval but are yet 
desirable sires are classed as " authorized " ; while all others 
which have passed the veterinary inspection covering roaring 
and moon blindness are simply " certified." The stallions from 
the government " haras " are systematically distributed through- 
out the breeding districts during the season. 

Ideals in stallion license laws differ, there being a marked 
lack of uniformity in the provisions of those enacted in the dif- 
ferent. States. A stallion may be licensed to stand for service 



THE BREEDING OF HORSES 189 

in one State while barred from service in another. Local con- 
ditions govern, of course, in the case of each State, but there can 
hardly be sufficient difference in the prevailing conditions to 
warrant such a variety of laws. 

The objects of stallion laws should be (1) to protect the mare 
owner, by preventing misrepresentation of the breeding or the 
soundness of the stallion; (2) to protect the owners of superior 
breeding stallions by eliminating or discouraging the use of infe- 
rior competitors ; (3) to promote the interests of the mare owners 
by encouraging the purchase and standing of better stallions ; 
and (4) to promote the interests of the stallion owner by edu- 
cating the mare owner to be discriminating in his patronage. 

The first object is best insured by requiring an examination 
of the pedigree registry certificates and a uniform inspection, 
by one board or commission, of every stallion for which applica- 
tion for license is made, all stallions found acceptable to be class- 
ified according to breeding, whether pure-bred, grade or scrub, 
sound or unsound, and said classification to be specified clearly 
in the license certificate. 

Purity of Breeding. — Pure-bred is such an arbitrary term, 
contingent upon so many conditions, that it is more accurate and 
just in many cases to certify a stallion to be registered or unreg- 
istered rather than of pure breeding or not of pure breeding. In 
many instances ineligibility to registry may be strictly technical, 
due to neglect on the part of previous owners, and may not in 
any way alter the purity of breeding of the stallion or his value 
as a sire. The fact that the horse is unregistered, however, can- 
not be disputed. 

Hereditary unsoundness is such an elusive condition, so diffi- 
cult of prognosis, that to specify just what conditions of unsound- 
ness shall, by their presence, disqualify for service, will necessi- 
tate the elimination of many individuals of much breeding value, 
although their get may be in no way predisposed to the unsound- 
ness which they themselves possess. The same unsoundness may 
be quite regularly transmitted in one case while perhaps never 
appearing to be hereditary in another. The most careful obser- 
vation and inquiry warrant the conclusion that spavin and roar- 
ing, for instance, can only be regarded as of an hereditary nature 



190 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING 

when their transmission has actually been demonstrated in the 
progeny. 

The existence of a defective conformation is to be regarded 
with as much apprehension as the actual unsoundness itself, 
especially if the latter be unaccompanied by an apparent pre- 
disposing cause. In making such a determination, it must be 
borne in mind that souie unsoundnesses, as roaring, may not 
manifest themselves, even though transmitted, until such age that 
the horse in question may have been lost track of, although, as a 
rule, a sire of colts that develop unsoundness with any degree 
of uniformity can soon be detected. 

Suitable Laws. — Any law to be workable and meet the varied 
conditions, as they exist in most States, should have some flexi- 
bility in its application, permitting arbitrary consideration of 
each case by those in charge of its administration. With a suffi- 
cient number of registered, sound stallions available to the 
breeders of a community, a law might be very strict in its re- 
quirements as to breeding and soundness, but there are localities 
where the interest in horse breeding is such as to need a boost 
and is not capable of withstanding much of a knock. As long 
as the State itself is not empowered or equipped to place there 
a good stallion, but must depend upon private ownership for 
whatever breeding there is done, stallions that should be barred 
from service, if in competition with good sires, may be permitted 
to stand, if not doing more harm than good. Meanwhile, the 
efforts of the stallion board or commission may be devoted to an 
educational campaign which will ultimately bring better stallions 
into that district. 

Difficult Points. — It is most difficult to establish the fact 
that a stallion is unfit for service on account of an existing un- 
soundness or a short pedigree, while his get are annually selling 
for more than the colts of other stallions fully accredited on the 
basis of strict stallion law requirements. Not until the poorest 
pure-bred is superior as a sire to the best grade and until much 
more is known of hereditary unsoundness, can we consistently 
make legal discrimination against all grade and all unsound 
stallions, without effecting detriment to the breeding industry. 
Elimination of the unfit is only one means of protecting and pro- 



THE BREEDING OF HORSES 191 

moting the interests of the fit, and what constitutes fitness itself 
is more or less arbitrarily determined by local conditions. 

The average of merit of stallions standing for service is so 
low that it will take time to' attain to the theoretical or ideal in 
actual practice. France, with her system of government owner- 
ship, can afford to be much more independent and dictatorial 
than our States, which are dependent on private enterprise and 
capital for whatever breeding there is done. Too oppressive re- 
strictions may be so discouraging as to destroy the business alto- 
gether. An individual or company, for instance, may invest 
$2,500 in a two-year-old draft stallion, which at the time of pur- 
chase passes an examination for soundness and is accompanied 
by a registry certificate. In the course of a year or two this colt 
may develop an unsoundness or some fraud may be detected in 
his pedigree registry certificate. To require his retirement from 
service on either of these accounts, would entail a most unjust 
financial loss upon his owners, and would undoubtedly dissuade 
them from ever making a similar investment. 

The Attitude of Mare Owners. — The mare owners, while 
not directly named in stallion license laws, should receive a 
share of the consideration of the administrative boards. They 
really hold the key to the whole situation, in the discrimination 
they show and the amount of the fees they will allow in their 
patronage of stallions. Stallions capable of becoming good sires 
are costly, and their fee must be sufficient to insure some return 
on the investment. With a liberal policy adopted by the mare 
owners, there need be no dearth of good sires. The scrub is 
costly to patronize though the fee is low. As long as the scrub 
can command his share of the patronage, there is little to induce 
one to invest in a first-class stallion. It is a fact worthy of note 
that the average stud fee prevailing in those States from which 
the bulk of the market supply of horses of this country is drawn is 
about double that of those districts where the horse business is 
given up as unprofitable. 

No law can compel mare owners to patronize superior stal- 
lions, nor is it constitutional to deny them the patronage of the 
inferior ones, unless they are proven to be an absolute menace 
to the industry. Education is the only solution, and that is 



192 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING 

within the province of, and should he vigorously prosecuted by, 
the licensing officials. 

The Community System of Breeding. — There are many 
advantages in the breeders of a community getting together and 
working to a common end within the same breed. Such a system 
makes possible the use of a stallion which no individual member 
of the community could own. It promotes cooperation and 
mutual helpfulness, which in time revert to the benefit of all 
concerned in the way of a district reputation for horses of what- 
ever type produced. Buyers are thus attracted where they could 
not be induced to come to see but a few widely scattered horses 
or colts, in the hands of jealous owners who were not disposed 
to reveal the whereabouts of other possibilities in case their own 
failed to meet the buyers' requirements. Individual advantages 
are subordinate to the interests of the community, the general 
policy being to insure the buyers finding the horses sought, each 
owner helping his neighbor to make a sale, in case he himself 
has nothing to suit. Once satisfied, the buyers are most likely 
to return when those who were unable to sell the first time may 
have their inning. 

When different types and breeds are represented in a com- 
munity, partisan sentiment is almost certain to prevail. Each 
breeder cannot accomplish alone what might be possible by the 
combined effort of all, and their offerings in any one line are not 
sufficient to attract the best buyers. 

The Breeding Stud. — A horse breeding establishment is 
spoken of either as a stud or stud farm, the breeding sire as the 
stud horse (Fig. 121). 

The equipment of a stud farm should consist of comfortable 
and hygienic quarters, productive pastures, preferably underlaid 
with limestone and provided with ample shade and running 
water, safe fences, and competent help. 

Quarters. — Breeding stock does not do well in close confine- 
ment, but dry, light, roomy, loose boxes or sheds, well bedded, 
should be provided, to which the horses may have ready access 
voluntarily, if not regularly stabled. For stallions, box stalls 
opening into paddocks, the doors fastened back, are best; mares 
are better cared for in the same way if practicable, although they 



THE BREEDING OF HORSES 



193 



do fairly well in open sheds and lots, if too many are not turned 
together and there are no quarrelsome ones in the lot. For draft 
mares that are worked regularly, the paddock would be superflu- 
ous, but they should be allowed loose boxes in which they can lie 
more comfortably as pregnancy advances. 

Maternity stalls may be kept purposely for foaling, but as 
mares are more finicky than other females at parturition time 
there is some advantage, so far as their peace of mind is con- 
cerned, in keeping them regularly in the quarters that they are to 
be permitted to foal in, alongside of their accustomed mates. 

Pastures. — The greatest horse breeding districts are char- 
acterized by luxuriant pastures, a most important feature of any 





mip~ 

'XT-'" 1 




Fig. 121. — A breeding stud. In the work ring are two Hackney stallions in the fore- 
ground, two Hackney pony stallions to the left, two show pony mares, the product of the 
stud, on the right; show horses, brood mares and foals, weaning colts and fillies in the back- 
ground. The stallion stable is on the right, the quarters for mares and colts on the left. 

breeding farm. Size and early maturity are sought in all but the 
ponies, and since the body is 6 to 9 per cent bone, and bone is 00 to 
70 per cent ash, and 80 per cent of the ash is calcium phosphate, a 
limestone foundation is a pasture essential. The seeding should 
include such variety of grasses and legumes as to keep the forage 
coining all through the season. Pastures should be well drained, 
not too rough or stony ; all dangerous places, such as quarry holes, 
pits, bogs, and stump lots, should be well guarded. Shade, run- 
ning water, and possibly a fly flap complete the pasture requisites. 
Fences should be at least four and one-half feet high, strong, 
and of material and construction affording no opportunity for 
the horses to be snagged or cut. The post and rail, common in the 
East and South, is perhaps the most satisfactory horse fence. If 



194 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING 

any barbed wire is used, it should be the top strand kept tight. 
The ideal fence has been described as " hog tight, bull strong, and 
horse high " — such is the post and rail, four rails high. 

THE STALLION 

Selection of the sire is the most important single step pertain- 
ing to the establishment of a breeding stud. His is the most 
potent influence for either good or bad in the operation. Like 
the bull, he is more than half the herd. On account of his being 
the parent of so many individual offspring in a given season, his 
influence is much more extended than that of the mares. It 
would require the use of as many superior mares as a stallion may 
beget foals to accomplish the results that might be attained with a 
single stallion, and then the progeny would be much less uniform. 
In the case of an individual, his dam may have as much to do with 
determining his merit as the sire, and it is important that only 
good mares be bred, but the most practical method of improving 
the mares of future generations is to grade up by means of a su- 
perior sire. But one parent being pure-bred, his or her characters 
will dominate in the offspring, since purity of breeding is a cause 
of prepotency. As a rule, the pure-bred parent will be the sire. 
In selecting a stallion, whether it be to head a select band of pure- 
bred mares or to patronize with but a single mare, he must be 
considered from three angles, — as an individual, as representing 
and transmitting the characters of an ancestry, and as the pro- 
genitor of a future generation. 

As an individual, he should be just what is desired in his 
get, i.e., of the right type, good conformation and sound, being 
strongest in those respects in which the mare or mares with 
which he is to be mated are most deficient (Fig. 122). Further- 
more, he must be masculine in appearance, possessing that de- 
velopment of forehand, hardness of feature, and boldness of 
demeanor which bespeak the impressive sire. 

Testing Stallions. — The ancestry is the antecedent of the 
progeny and should be carefully studied in order to forecast the 
character of the progeny. Just as the proof of the pudding is in 
the eating, so the real value of a sire cannot be determined with- 
out an inspection of his get. They alone are sufficient either to 



THE BREEDING OF HORSES 



195 




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Figs. 122a and 122b. — A successful sire of the right type, good conformation, sound, 
and masculine in appearance, whose prepotency is demonstrated by the trueness to type 
and uniform excellence of his get. 



196 THE PRINICIPLES OF BREEDING 

commend or condemn the individual as a breeder. Xone but a 
proven sire should be put at the head of a breeding stud. The in- 
feriority of a horse as a breeder may not be manifested until his 
get are fairly mature ; in the meantime, the best mares have been 
bred to him, perhaps for more than one season, and the damage 
wrought in the stock as well as the time lost may take generations 
to efface. The prospective sire should be tried out in a limited 
way with a few mares before being trusted in premier place. It 
is only for this purpose that the use of stud colts is justifiable. 

Early service cannot improve the development of the colt, and 
unless carefully managed may be harmful, yet from the owner's 
point of view it is often desirable to know, early, something of the 
youngster's ability as a sire. To this end he may be used as a two- 
or a three-year-old on a few selected mares, all to be served in a 
short period, so that there may 1 >e no interruption in his growth. 

The care and management of the stallion through the breed- 
ing season may be summarized in a discussion of the feeding, ex- 
ercise, regulation of service, and grooming. A mutual balance 
between food and exercise is the key to condition of the stallion in 
service. A most effective prescription employed by a prominent 
veterinarian in one of the most extensive horse breeding districts 
of this country is, " Halve the ration and double the exercise 
when the stallion is not giving a vigorous, sure service." 

Feeding. — Vigor and tone are secured for the sire by a ration 
rich in tissue-building, protein and ash, but with little of the 
fat forming starches, the whole to be counterbalanced by exercise 
of some form in the open air. ISTo better grain ration can be 
offered than oats, but for the sake of variety and relish there may 
be substituted a little barley or corn, and bran is always a valu- 
able supplement to any grain ration, since it relaxes the system 
generally, corrects or prevents digestive disorders, and furnishes 
an abundance of bone and tissue-building material. 

The draft stallion is most likely to be the victim of a stimu- 
lating ration that is not counterbalanced by sufficient exercise. 
The demand for ton horses is responsible for a system of fitting 
which is not intended to insure foals. Many draft stallions 
offered for show or sale are in anything but breeding condition. 
On the other hand, it should not be considered necessary to 



THE BREEDING OF HORSES 197 

reduce a draft stallion to anything like race horse condition in 
order to insure virility. It is natural for a draft horse to be fat 
in a degree which would be abnormal in a. road horse, and he is 
not at his best in any other condition. There is what might be 
termed an optimum or best normal weight for any horse, i.e., his 
weight when in normal condition as to flesh, muscular tone, and 
vigor. If that can be determined and then maintained by estab- 
lishing a balance between feed consumed and exercise taken, the 
greatest virility may be expected. 

Exercise. — If a horse is gaining over his normal weight, in- 
crease his exercise first, and if he continues to gain, reduce his 
ration. If he falls below normal weight and is receiving only 
a reasonable amount of exercise, increase his ration first, then, 
if necessary, reduce the exercise. But it is generally the former 
rather than the latter condition which the stud groom has to 
meet. The old country practice of travelling the horse is one 
of the most practical means of solving the exercise problem, and 
is for that reason commendable, although there seems to be a 
prejudice against it in some parts of this country. It is often 
found practicable to give the draft stallion work about the farm. 
If there is no such opportunity, he should be led or driven several 
miles per day, but at a walk. This is the draft horse's gait, and 
if a more ingenious than industrious groom imagines that he can 
concentrate the benefits of a long walk into a short trot, he will 
find the results much in favor of the walk. 

Exercise is just as essential to the best breeding condition of 
the light stallion, but the trotter is more certain of his daily jog 
and the Thoroughbred of his morning gallop than is the drafter 
of his walk. In the lighter classes of stallions there is not the 
premium placed on weight which induces the feeder to fatten the 
horse beyond all reason. 

Regulation of tlie sen-ices of the stallion is of vital impor- 
tance. Opinions differ as to just what such regulation should be, 
but nearly all agree that many horses are misused in service. 
It is well to remember that a horse's success is not measured by 
the number of mares he serves, but by the number and character 
of the colts he gets in a given season. No definite number of 



198 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING 

mares can be assigned as best to allow the horse, since the num- 
ber that can be properly bred will depend upon their distribu- 
tion through the season, the age of the horse, and his preparation 
and fitness for the work. The most conservative estimate is an 
average of one service per day the season through for a mature 
horse. However, the mares do not always come in regular order, 
distributed throughout, the entire season. Hence, it often be- 
comes necessary to make two or even three covers in a single day, 
and this may be done, occasionally, with no injury to the horse. 
It should not be repeated, however. 

Grooming is necessary, not only to make the horse more at- 
tractive in appearance, but to assist exercise in maintaining the 
best of health and condition. The functions of the skin must 
be kept active. A lack of exercise and neglect in grooming are 
together responsible for many serious conditions about the legs 
and feet of the big, lymphatic draft stallions, especially those 
with much coarse feather. The grooming must not be so rough 
nor severe as to cause irritation either of the skin or temper, but 
it should be thorough, with special care taken to keep all parts 
clean and free from any foulness. 

THE BROOD MARE 

We have as yet no definite information to show that the parent 
of either sex has any special influence in determining the char- 
acter of the offspring apart from what is governed by prepo- 
tency. The relative influence of sire and dam is apparently in 
favor of the sire because the female line is so often lost or un- 
traced. Many noted families, however, have been founded by 
females, and the evidence of Arab pedigrees, which have been 
traced through the dams for centuries, demonstrates the impor- 
tance of the mare. 

The dam is not only a source of hereditary transmission, like 
the sire, but she serves as a host to the developing foetus. Selec- 
tion of the brood mare involves the same general consideration 
as selection of the stallion. Her manifestation of sex character 
is found in a comparatively light forehand, a sweet, refined head 



THE BREEDING OF HORSES 



199 



and neck, and a matronly appearance throughout (Fig. 123). 
In order to sustain the growth of the foetus well, she should be 
deep-ribbed and roomy, and somewhat more openly made, with 
more length, than is desirable in the stallion. She should pos- 
sess every indication of capacity and vigor (Fig. 124). 

Care and Management of the Brood Mare. — The feed, work, 
and care, at and after foaling, are of greatest importance in con- 




Fig. 123. — A producer — sweet, refined, and feminine. 



nection with the mare. Food and exercise, together, so regulate 
the condition of the mare as to determine success or failure in 
the production of a foal. It is a matter of give and take between 
them. A balance is manifested by the condition which is indi- 
cative of the greatest activity of the vital functions, i.e., vigor, 
expressed in the clear eve, the sleek coat, and the keen appetite 
which the feeder describes as " hearty," together with a general 
evidence of nerve and muscle tone. The mare in this condition 



200 



THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING 



will carry no superfluous flesh, but is herself sufficiently well 
nourished to insure ample nutriment for the perfect development 
of the foal. 

The ideal conditions for the brood mare, namely those in 
which the balance between feed and exercise is most easily main- 
tained and the feed of the best sort secured, are those surround- 
ing mares at pasture. Fresh air and sunshine, without exposure, 




Fig. 124. — A brood marc of pre 



en worth, deep-ribbed and roomy, with every indication 
of capacity and vigor. 



freedom to move about at will, with little danger of slips or 
fatigue, and an abundance of nutritious, succulent forage, fur- 
nishing the elements essential to the growth of the foal and the 
production of milk by the dam, are the things nature has pro- 
vided at the season of the year when most females naturally bring 
forth their young. These can hardly be improved upon, and if 
they must be modified or substituted on account of economy, they 
should still be the standard by which other systems are measured. 



THE BREEDING OF HORSES 201 

However, the average farmer must either breed his working 
mares or work his brood mares. The question which confronts 
him is how to secure natural conditions for his mares while per- 
forming artificial service. 

It must be borne in mind that feed furnishes energy and 
tissue-forming material, and that the performance of work re- 
quires energy and uses up tissue. Thus the balance between 
them is maintained. The mare at work is just as well off, in the 
matter of exercise, fresh air, and sunshine, as the one at pasture, 
but she has imposed upon her labor which demands more energy 
and uses more tissue-building material. She is also subject to 
fatigue, mechanical injuries, and nervous disturbances that never 
come to the mare at pasture. 

Exercise and Work. — In general, the management of the 
brood mare should have for its object the feeding of such a ration 
as will supply the demand for energy and tissue and still allow 
ample nourishment for the development of the foal, either before 
or after birth, together with such a regulation of the work as 
will protect the mare from becoming tired, overheated, or in- 
jured in any way. She must not be fretted either by another 
horse or by a rough hand, while heavy, jerky pulls, extreme 
speed, rough saddle work, or jumping are to be strictly prohibited 
as pregnancy advances. But to work a mare up to within a 
month of foaling and then confine her in a stall with no exercise 
whatever is almost as injurious as to begin working her hard 
after ten months' rest, following breeding. It is not unusual for 
mares to foal, successfully, while in the field at work, but it is 
safer to gradually diminish the work, so that during the last 
few weeks of pregnancy only the lightest work is done or exercise 
in the yard is taken. 

Avoid Extremes. — It is a peculiar fact that, while the two 
extremes in condition are both unfavorable to breeding, statistics 
indicate that the birth rate among nations has shown a marked 
increase following devastation by war and famine, conditions 
of life in which the females become reduced to the extreme of 
low condition. This would seem to be in response to a natural 
law for the preservation of the race, and should not be taken to 



202 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING 

indicate that starvation and extremely low condition are favor- 
able to reproduction. It is true that a thin mare is more apt to 
breed than a pampered one, but a mare in low condition has no 
reserve on which to draw for the nourishment and growth of 
her colt. Her whole system is in an impoverished condition, 
which must be corrected before the nutrients will be available for 
the growth of the foal. 

Feeding. — The quality of the ration is of as much impor- 
tance as the quantity. Fat production is to be avoided, and the 
formation of blood, muscle, and bone sought instead. Hence, a 
comparatively narrow ration should be fed. 

The tendency of females to fatten as pregnancy advances 
must be guarded, as mares may become so fat as to interfere with 
the development of the foal, and cause abortion or trouble at 
birth. Just before and after foaling, the ration of the dam 
should be lightened and made more laxative by the addition of 
bran, either dry or in a mash, to be continued until both dam and 
foal have fully recovered from the ordeal through which they 
have just passed. 

After Foaling. — Exercise should be permitted after the sys- 
tem of the mare has readjusted itself, but regular work should 
not be begun inside of three weeks. It is better not to work the 
mare until the foal is weaned. 



THE FOAL 

Navel Infection and Impaction of the Bowels in Young 
Foals. — There are two active causes of death in young foals, a 
better understanding of which might materially reduce the 
fatalities ordinarily reported during the foaling season. One, 
perhaps the most common, is due to an impaction in the bowels 
of the excrement accumulated during the development prior to 
birth. This material is called meconium, and its prompt re- 
moval is essential to the well-being of the new born animal. 
Nature has provided for the accomplishment of this by giving 
to the fore-milk or colostrum, as it is called, purgative properties. 
Thus, if Nature's plans are not interfered with and the first 



THE BREEDING OF HORSES 203 

milk is taken, there is usually no trouble in clearing the bowels 
after birth. However, the dam may have some trouble with her 
milk at first, or the young, through weakness, may not get a 
good draft of fore-milk ; in some cases even, care is taken to draw 
off the colostrum before the young thing suckles, in the belief 
that it is unfit to be taken ; and the colt suffers accordingly. In 
order to avoid the difficulties arising from this cause, the first 
care should be to insure a good portion of the fore-milk for the 
young creature. Then if, from any cause, the digestive tract has 
not been cleared of its contents within twenty-four hours, the 
bowels must be stimulated to action by a tablespoonful of castor 
oil and a warm water injection. 

The other cause of many deaths in young animals is infec- 
tion with pus and disease germs through the navel. At the 
moment the umbilical cord is ruptured there is a direct commu- 
nication from without to some of the vital internal organs and 
blood of the foal. This opening is later closed naturally by the 
swelling and final drying and sloughing off of the end of the cord. 
There is thus a brief opportunity for the entrance of bacteria 
which may later affect the system generally or locally and 
produce serious results. It has been satisfactorily demonstrated 
that the so-called navel or joint ill, in foals, is due to organisms 
entering through this channel. 

If this affection has prevailed in a stable it would be well 
to remove pregnant mares to clean, uninfected quarters and 
allow them to foal there. The new-born foal should be dropped 
only on fresh litter, and it would be safer to wash the stump 
of the cord with a saturated solution of boracic acid and then 
dust with boric acid powder. These precautions have been the 
means of eradicating the difficulty from many stables where 
deaths had occurred year after year. 

It is not advisable to cut or ligate the cord, but allow it to 
break naturally, as it will do if left alone. A torn or broken 
blood-vessel will not bleed, whereas, one that is cut directlv 
across will, and it takes a skilled hand and sterilized materials 
to make a ligature that will not do more harm than good. If it 
were more generally known that the newly broken umbilical cord 



204 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING 

offers a channel of infection which may admit the most danger- 
ous bacteria, more care would be taken to prevent such infection. 

During the existence of the colt as a suckling some especial 
precautions must be taken in addition to those already men- 
tioned. The milk flow must be maintained by succulent forage, 
the colt must be fed often, and the dam must at no time be in 
such a condition as to render the milk injurious to the foal. 

Most breeders advise leaving the colt in the stable while the 
dam is at work, but others allow the colt to follow the dam to 
the field. The objection to the former method is that unless the 
mare is returned at least once during each half day the colt 
becomes very hungry, and when the mare comes to him sweat- 
ing he gorges himself on the milk with which the udder is dis- 
tended. This milk is often rendered injurious by the heated 
condition of the mare, and it thus becomes a cause of serious 
digestive disorder, especially when so much is taken. It is a 
good thing to encourage the colt, as it grows older, to take a 
few oats, preferably crushed, from its- mother's allowance, or a 
creep may be especially constructed for the foal to feed in. If 
two mares and foals are allowed together, the youngsters will 
form an attachment for each other which will prove of great 
service in reconciling them to the weaning process. 

The Next Breeding. — Observations have shown that a mare 
may be bred with greater certainty of success on the ninth day 
after foaling than at any subsequent date. It is also known that 
mares which have their sexual ardor somewhat suppressed by a 
moderate degree of fatigue are more apt to conceive than mares 
in an extremely nervous condition at the time of service. It is 
for this purpose that the Arab gives his mare a sharp run just 
prior to service. 

Breeding Two-Year-Old Fillies. — The advisability of 
breeding fillies at two years of age is an economic question 
which is frequently considered, and concerning which there 
is a great deal of difference of opinion. It may be said, in the 
first place, that it all depends upon the filly. Horses of draft 
breeding mature much earlier than the hot-blooded sort, so that a 



THE BREEDING OF HORSES 205 

draft, filly at two years of age is often as forward as one of 
trotting breeding almost or fully a year older. Again, there is 
a great difference in individuals and their development. Usually 
a smoothly turned, neat, well-finished youngster makes its growth 
much sooner than an apparently rougher but more growthy indi- 
vidual, although as a rule the latter attains, eventually, to much 
greater scale. Furthermore, the same individual may develop 
in much less time in the hands of the feeder who keeps her con- 
tinually " doing " than when required to make all her growth 
on pasture, with a material setback due to improper feeding each 
winter season. 

It does not seem feasible to include in this discussion any 
but the well-matured draft filly, she being the only one which 
should, under any circumstances, be bred as a two-year-old. 
It is not reasonable to suppose that, from the point of view of the 
filly herself, early breeding is beneficial, but as a business propo- 
sition it has been demonstrated that, whatever slight injurious 
effect the filly may suffer, it is not sufficient to offset the advan- 
tage of having her make some return, as a three-year-old, to the 
man who has his money invested and is paying for her keep. 
It is more satisfactory to have a two-year-old filly pay her way 
by raising a foal than by going to work in the field, as she is very 
much more apt to suffer permanent injury from this than from 
being bred. Even though a great many two-year-olds are capable 
of doing a considerable amount of selected work, they cannot 
take the. full part of a horse's work without danger of its becom- 
ing detrimental to their ultimate worth. 

The breeding of fillies is believed to insure their becoming 
better mother^ and more certain and regular breeders, eventually, 
than though they be permitted to fully develop and become some- 
what " staggy," as they do occasionally, before being bred. 

Practice Elsewhere. — The best means of solving this prob- 
lem is to accept the findings of the other great horse-producing 
countries where it has been thoroughly worked out. In Scot- 
land, for instance, the practice is to breed the Clyde fillies the 
spring they are two years old, allowing them no work whatever 
that season. Then, after weaning their foals, they are taken up 



206 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING 

as three-year-olds and put to work, but not bred again until they 
are four years old. This seems to be a very practical system 
and worthy of our adoption. 

Spring or Fall Foaling. — The natural time for foals to ar- 
rive is the spring, and under ordinary conditions, especially in 
breeding studs, this is customary. However, nature is perverted 
in many ways by modern methods of domestication, so there are 
circumstances which make it more desirable to raise fall colts. 
With good stables, abundance of feed, and the necessary help, 
there is no reason why mares should not be made to foal in the 
fall, if it is more convenient to have them do so. This may be 
the case with farm mares which are expected to do the season's 
work in addition to raising a colt. In fact, if one is forced to 
choose between a spring foal, with no chance to properly favor 
the mare, and a fall colt which arrives and is suckled while the 
mare is laid by, the latter would be more desirable. During the 
winter, however, both mares and foals will require.more attention 
and should not be " roughed through." By late foaling the 
youngsters can be given a good start before they are set back by 
the inevitable short pastures and flies of midsummer. 

Of course, breeders of race and show horses take every ad- 
vantage of the age limit and therefore favor early foaling. 
There are also the unquestioned benefits to be derived from the 
life in the open and the new grass to commend the spring time 
for foaling, but prejudice against the fall date is not altogether 
warranted and circumstances may be such as to make it most 
advantageous. 

Weaning the FoaL — The foal is usually weaned at from 
four and one-half to six months of age, depending upon the cir- 
cumstances. If pasture is short, or if for any reason either mare 
or foal is not doing well, it is advisable to wean the foal com- 
paratively early. If, on the other hand, the mare has a full flow 
of milk and her services are not needed, there is no reason for 
making a change under six months. Weaning is. more a matter 
of preparation than of the absolute removal of the foal from 



THE BREEDING OF HORSES 207 

the dam, and the simplicity of the weaning process itself depends 
upon the thoroughness of the preparation. 

If the proper provision is made for the foal to take more and 
more grain as he grows older, he will gradually reduce the 
amount of milk taken from his dam, so that when the time for 
weaning arrives very little if any setback or disturbance is caused 
either foal or dam. If, however, the foal must learn to eat after 
being deprived of his ordinary source of sustenance, he will 
require some time to accommodate himself to the new regime, 
while the mare will demand especial care on account of the 
removal of the colt before her milk supply has been to any ex- 
tent diminished. Furthermore, a little foal acquires a spirit 
of independence as he becomes self-sustaining, and for that 
reason the absence of the dam becomes a less disturbing factor 
to him, especially if he has the company of another foal, than 
to the young thing which has been entirely dependent upon its 
dam until she is suddenly taken away. When once the dam and 
foal are separated it is - better for both if the separation is com- 
plete ; if, after both have become reconciled to the parting, they 
are permitted to see, hear, or smell each other again, all that has 
been gained up to this time is lost, and it will be necessary to 
begin over. Especial care should be taken to see that the new 
quarters, where the weanlings are confined, are so constructed 
and arranged as to make it impossible for them to injure them- 
selves, in case they make a demonstration of their resentment at 
being so treated. 

Care of the Colt's Feet. — The relation between the direction 
of the colt's legs and the form of his feet is so close as to make 
the care of the latter a most important means of enhancing his 
usefulness in later years. In the» first place, the natural attitude 
of the leg determines, in large part, the form of the foot. 
Tint, on the other hand, the natural attitude of the leg may 
become altered to conform to an unnatural condition of the foot 
resulting from neglect. Therefore, if the natural attitude of the 
leg is correct, the natural form of the foot should be guarded 
in order to preserve the correct position of the leg. It is even 



208 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING 

possible, within certain limits, to so shape a colt's foot as to 
induce correction of some defect in the position of the legs which 
existed at birth. For example, the horse which stands toe wide, 
nigger heeled, or splay footed as it is commonly called, will 
have the inner wall of his foot much shorter and more upright 
than the outer wall. The condition is probably due primarily 
to the position of the legs, the foot at birth appearing normal. 
If, however, the animal had been bom with the legs straight, 
but for some reason during the first few months of his life the 
outer wall of his foot had been allowed to become longer than 
the inner wall, this unnatural form of the foot would tend to 
bring about a toe wide position of the legs which were originally 
straight. Or, if the feet of a toe wide colt had been kept in 
proper form, they would have influenced the toe wide legs to 
assume a proper direction. 

Horses become unsound of limb when the wear and tear is 
not equally distributed, certain parts bearing an undue amount. 
Equal distribution of weight bearing and other functional activ- 
ities are possible only when the form of the foot and the direc- 
tion of the leg are correct. Any deviation from the proper 
standing position of whatever degree will, in all probability, 
cause a proportionate overtaxing of certain parts with its result- 
ing unsoundness. 

Handling the Foal. — It is much easier to train the young 
plant or to mold the clay before they are set in some definite 
form. In the same way the young animal, and notably the horse, 
has fewer ideas of his own, and is more ready to accept the direc- 
tions of a superior intelligence the younger this work is taken up. 

The too common notion that education and work are insepar- 
able is largely responsible for the fact that so many colts are 
allowed to assert their independence until such time as they are 
fit to go to work, their general usefulness being in most cases 
impaired on this account. The horse should be reasonably ma- 
ture before he is called upon to do any service, but any time 
spent on his education prior to the date at which he first goes 
into commission, as it were, will be repaid many-fold in the more 
satisfactory manner in which he performs his service. 



THE BREEDING OF HORSES 209 

The profit and pleasure to be derived from the use of a horse 
of any class are so dependent upon his being readily subservient 
to his master's will that the earlier this spirit is created the 
better horse he will be. A common custom in the Middle West 
is to take the imbroken two- or three-year-old, put him between 
two or three other horses to the gang plow, and thus " break " 
him. He pulls when the others pull, makes the turns when they 
do, and finally becomes of about as much service at that work as 
the other horses in the team, but he is not broken. Take him by 
himself and he will not stand, back, lead, rein, or allow a foot 
to be picked up without as much or more resistance than was 
offered before the breaking process began. 

Subordination. — Little foals- should be taught subordination 
at the very start, and not allowed to become wilful or head- 
strong. An early effort in this direction will not only simplify 
that culmination of their education, too often most properly 
termed " breaking," but it will insure that end being more com- 
pletely accomplished. -On the other hand, the idea of fear must 
be kept as- remote as possible, as the timid horse is usually the 
one which has some terrifying experience to remember. Even 
before the time for haltering arrives, the youngsters may be 
taught to stand over, have their feet raised, and in a general way 
to respond to the master mind. 

Halter Breaking. — When halters are to be placed on the 
colts in order that they may become accustomed to them, one of 
the light web variety is preferable to the heavier strap halter 
commonly used, and care should be taken not to pull heavily on 
the noseband at any time. Many deformed face lines have been 
caused by this means. It is not necessary to drag a colt by the 
halter in order to suggest to him that his business is to follow. 
As a matter of fact, the reverse effect is usual, and the harder 
a colt is pulled, the harder he pulls back. If, on the contrary, he 
is coaxed along some accustomed route, as to the water trough 
and back, he will soon catch on and follow promptly whenever 
the halter is taken in hand. 

The first time the colt is tied up by the head, see to it that the 
halter will hold him in case he pulls. If it does and he fails in 
14 



210 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING 

the first few attempts, a string will probably serve as well as a 
chain to keep him in bis place thereafter, while if he succeeds in 
freeing himself at the first few attempts lie will never cease 
trying to repeat what he has once accomplished. 

Bridle and Harness. — The first step toward getting a colt 
going successfully in harness is to properly bit and mouth him. 
In the old countries a common practice is to back the colt into a 
slip stall and hold him there by cross-ties snapped in the bit 
rings. He thus works against the iron, first bearing, then yield- 
ing, until he becomes accustomed to its presence and the pressure 
exerted by it. The dumb jockey or more simple bitting ring, 
commonly used here, serves much the same purpose, but no 
mechanical device is as effective as the pressure of the hand on 
the rein ; better mouths are made in this way. One of the most 
effective ways of developing a good mouth in a colt and of teaching 
him to flex his neck is by riding him as soon as he is old enough 
to be " backed." Many of the best harness horses received much 
of their preliminary schooling from the saddle. Inasmuch as 
the conveyance of the master's thought to the horse's mind, for 
execution, is via hands, reins, bit, and mouth, no progress can be 
made and none should be attempted until this fundamental 
means of communication has been established. Simple physical 
power is a poor means of control when applied to the horse. On 
the contrary, control is a matter which involves to a greater 
extent the mental faculties of both horse and master. If he has 
been inspired from colthood with the idea of man's dominance, 
obedience will receive a great deal more consideration from him 
than will rebellion. 

While teaching the horse subordination by leading him to 
underestimate certain of his powers, it is also essential that he 
be made to believe that there is no limit to certain others. In 
the breaking process the kick strap should not be left off until 
the habit has been acquired, npr should any pains be spared to 
prevent an initial performance at either rearing, backing, wheel- 
ing, or running. On the other hand, it is just as important not 
to overload a pair of draft colts, with a view of creating in them 
the notion that they can pull anything with two ends loose. For 



THE BREEDING OF HORSES 211 

the same reason a prospective race horse should be given no 
occasion to believe that he is anything but invincible. Thus by 
exaggerating our equine servant's notion of those of his powers 
which are most useful to us, and at the same time deceiving him 
as to those attributes which, if realized, might impair his use- 
fulness, we promote his serviceability. 

It is not necessary here to discuss the^ various systems of 
breaking, nor the art of driving. The idea is simply to impress 
upon the breeder the importance of properly handling the colts 
and fillies which he has bred. At all events, give them a liberal 
education and begin early. Then, when the buyer comes along, 
the colt so handled is more likely to sell well for tliree reasons: 
( 1 ) He is worth more ; (2 ) the owner has a better opportunity to 
show the colt off to his own advantage, presenting him with the 
best foot forward, as it w T ere; and (3) the buyer has a much 
better chance to observe the real merit that he possesses. 



STERILITY 

Sterility is the cause of considerable loss to horse breeders 
annually. Since actual test in the stud is the only means of de- 
termining its existence, large prices may be paid for breeding 
animals which prove utterly useless for that purpose. Some 
knowledge of the causes of sterility may enable the breeder to 
guard against the purchase of barren animals, to prevent it in 
his breeding stock, or to regain the breeding power of animals in 
which it is temporarily impaired. 

Sterility may be either permanent or temporary, and involves 
both sexes. Permanent sterility is usually congenital, the result 
of an incomplete or abnormal development of the generative 
organs. Temporary sterility is caused by injuries or disease 
affecting the genital system, or such general constitutional con- 
ditions as may result from a change of environment, either ex- 
treme obesity or general debility, and excessive use in the stud. 

Sterility in the stallion may consist either of an inability or 
an indisposition to serve a mare ; or that operation may be accom- 
plished but with no resulting impregnation on account of the 



212 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING 

absence of live, vigorous spermatozoa. Sterility of the latter 
class may be complete or only partial, as when the breeding 
powers are impaired but not lost. Double cryptorchids, in which 
both testicles are retained undeveloped in the abdomen, are usu- 
ally sterile, while single cryptorchids (ridglings), in which one 
testicle only is involved, may be sure breeders. The latter are 
objectionable as sires, however, since the condition is frequently 
transmitted, thereby seriously complicating the operation of 
castration. 

Many instances are reported of imported stallions which have 
had successful stud seasons abroad proving impotent the first 
year or two in this country, after which their potency is regained. 

Stallions remain potent to an old age as a rule. Many valu- 
able sires are sacrificed just as their true worth is beginning to 
be appreciated, because they are growing old. Experienced 
breeders who retain their proven sires find them potent to an 
advanced age and much more valuable than many untried young 
stallions prove to be. Most stallions are sold with a guarantee 
to get 60 per cent of breedable mares in foal, but a much higher 
percentage is maintained by some. 

Sterility or barrenness of the mare consists of an inability 
to produce a living colt. She may either be unable to conceive, 
to carry the foal the full period of foetal development, or to de- 
liver the foal alive at the conclusion of gestation. 

Some mares are so irritable or excitable in the presence of 
the stallion as to make it necessary to resort to artificial impreg- 
nation in order to get them bred. 

If a twelve- or fourteen-year-old mare has never had a foal, 
her generative organs have probably undergone more or less 
atrophy from disuse, and the possibility of getting her with foal 
is much lessened. There are numerous instances, however, of 
quite old mares having become pregnant for the first time. Mares 
frequently suffer from cysts or tumors of the ovaries, the irrita- 
tion of which keeps them almost continually in heat and renders 
them practically useless, yet they fail to get in foal, when bred. 
Such mares should be spayed and considered as work geldings 
rather than brood mares. 



THE BREEDING OF HORSES 213 

Extensive breeders of imported mares have experienced con- 
siderable difficulty in getting some of them in foal the first season 
or two after their arrival unless they were in foal when brought 
over; others breed as readily as native mares. 

Occasionally a mare is encountered which breeds only every 
other year. Others will not come in season, or at least conceive, 
while suckling a foal. It is usually more difficult to get mares 
in foal in the fall than in the spring. The age to which mares 
will continue to breed is variable, but many have remained pro- 
ductive after passing the quarter century mark. Their breeding 
power declines gradually, being marked by occasional misses, 
occurring with increased frequency. 

A mare which produces a good foal regularly is of priceless 
value in the breeding stud. When an apparently valuable 
breeder, although not in foal at the time, is offered for sale, it 
is safe to assume that she has proven herself barren or at least 
a shy breeder, unless, of course, there are other obviously good 
reasons to account for her being sold. 

Hermaphrodites, individuals in which the sexual organs of 
both sexes are more or less completely represented, are, of course, 
sterile. 

Reproduction is a natural function which requires simply a 
normal state of health and vigor for its accomplishment. The 
stallion does not need the artificial stimulation of drugs to in- 
sure his potency, neither can there be any virtue in " breeding- 
remedies " for mares, other than that they may, like any anti- 
septic preparation, overcome acidity or correct a catarrhal con- 
dition in the genital tract. 

When intelligent management of breeding animals, insuring, 
especially, a balance between feed and exercise, fails, it is 
probable that breeding is either structurally or functionally 
impossible. 

Artificial impregnation is quite generally resorted to now by 
breeders of all classes of horses, both as a means of extending 
the services of the stallion and to insure the mares' getting in 
foal. The method of conveying the spermatic fluid from the 
vagina of the mare served, into the uterus of the same or other 



214 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING 

mares, by means of either the gelatine capsule or the impreg- 
nator — a specially designed syringe — is familiar to most horse 
breeders. When first advocated, artificial impregnation was 
opposed by mare owners, but when it is demonstrated that colts 
so conceived can not be distinguished from colts sired in the 
natural way, this prejudice gradually disappears. Peter the 
Great, the leading sire of trotters, got from seventy to eighty 
foals a year as a result of artificial impregnation being used in 
his case. 

It is fundamental to the successful practice of artificial im- 
pregnation to know that the vitality of the male germ cell is so 
susceptible to the influence of light and temperature that it must 
be carefully handled and quickly transferred. " Colts by mail " 
is hardly feasible. 

COST OF RAISING HORSES 

Reports have been received from about ten thousand cor- 
respondents of the Bureau of Statistics of the Department of 
Agriculture upon the cost of raising colts on farms to the age 
of three years. The average for the United States is found to 
be $104.06 ; or, if we deduct the value of work done by the horse 
before he has passed his third year, namely, $7.52, the net cost 
is $96.54; this is 70.9 per cent of the selling value ($136.17) 
of such horses. 

The cost varies widely by States, from an average of $69.50 
for New Mexico, $71.59 for Wyoming, and $82.47 for Texas, 
to $156.60 for Rhode Island, $149.98 for Connecticut, and 
$141.80 for Massachusetts. 

Itemized, the cost is made up as follows : Service fee, $12.95 ; 
value of time lost by mare in foaling, $10.06 ; breaking to halter, 
$2.22; veterinary service, $2.04; care and shelter, first year, 
$4.98 ; second year, $5.36 ; third year, $6.35 ; cost of grain fed, 
first year, $4.98; second year, $7.14; third year, $9.56; hay, 
first year, $4.14 ; second year, $6.61 ; third year, $8.48 ; pasture, 
first year, $2.56; second year, $5.41; third year, $6.21; other 
costs, $5.01; total, $104.06. 

The total cost for all feed is $56.30, being $21.68 for grain, 



THE BREEDING OF HORSES 215 

$19.28 for hay, $14.18 for pasture, and $1.21 for other feeds. 
The total cost of care and shelter is $16.69. Of the total cost, 54 
per cent is charged to feeds, 16 per cent to care and shelter, 
and 30 per cent to other items, as enumerated above. 

As more than half the cost of raising a three-year-old horse 
on the farm is chargeable to feeds, it is readily observed how 
important is the influence of variation in prices of feedstuffs 
upon such cost. 

REVIEW 

1. Describe the forces involved in breeding. 

2. What is the relation of the parent to the ancestry on the one hand 

and the progeny on the other? 

3. Explain the greater breeding value of the pure-bred parent. What 

is the pedigree ? 

4. What is meant by prepotency and upon what may it depend? 

5. What are the objections to cross-breeding and when is it justifiable? 

6. What is the importance of studbook registration ? 

7. What are the objects of stallion legislation? 
S. Why is " pure bred " an arbih'ary term ? 

9. When may an unsoundness be considered hereditary? 

10. Name the advantages of the community system of bi*eeding. 

11. Of Avhat does the proper equipment of a breeding stud consist? 

12. Describe the ideal sire and direct his care and management. 

13. Describe the ideal brood mare and direct her care and management. 

14. What can be said of breeding two-year-old fillies; of fall foaling? 

15. What should the proper care of the foal from birth to marketable 

age include and how much should it cost ? 



PART IV 

THE HORSE IN SERVICE 



CHAPTER XIII 
RELATION BETWEEN HORSE AND MASTER 

History.- -The first reference to the domesticated horse is in 
the Book of Genesis, Chapter xii, verse 43, and records him in use 
by the Egyptians in Joseph's time, 1715 b.c. Modern research, 
however, leads us to believe that the Egyptians derived their 
horses and ideas of horsemanship from the Libyans, the people 
of the other division of the Hamitic branch of the white race 
inhabiting Northern Africa and with whom the Egyj^tians were 
frequently brought in contact. From this centre the general 
distribution of horses throughout Arabia, Asia Minor, Asia, and 
Europe was accomplished with greater rapidity than has marked 
the advance in the domestication of any other animal. Con- 
trary to a popular belief, there were no horses in Arabia at the 
beginning of the Christian Era. The horse has been and is yet, 
in primitive countries, preceded as a beast of burden by the dog, 
camel, ox, and ass. 

Recently archaeologists have unearthed evidence that the 
horse not only existed but was subjugated to the service of man 
in the Old Stone Age, when men lived in caves, worked and 
fought with implements and weapons of stone of most crude 
design, and were supposed to have domesticated only the dog and 
the reindeer. 

The first use made of the horse was in warfare. The war 
chariot has been regarded as a creation of the Egyptians, but it 
is believed now that the design was borrowed from the Libyans. 
Later, the war horses were ridden, and hand-to-hand combat with 
spear or lance and shield was waged by their riders, although at 
first the horses served only for the transportation of the com- 
batants to the field of battle, where they dismounted and fought 
on foot. With the adoption of armor, the size of the horse was 
materially increased, in order that he might be capable of carry- 
ing the gross weight of rider and armor both for man and horse. 

219 



220 THE HORSE IN SERVICE 

With the invention of gunpowder the type of war horse was 
modified in accordance with the change in methods of warfare. 
Our modern cavalry charger is quite a different horse from the 
ancient " Great. Horse " of the armored knight, which eventually 
became the prototype of our present drafter. 

In ancient times it was customary for the victors in a con- 
flict to drive their chariots through the towns in celebration of 
their victory, a practice now emulated by college students. This 
led to the adoption of the chariot as a feature not allied to war 
but representing the Church and State. White horses were pre- 
ferred for this service, and a race of white horses was perpetu- 
ated in Lombardy and the purity of their lineage was guarded 
with great zeal solely for this purpose. The horse has been an 
important factor in civil and religious ceremonies ever since. 

At an early period the horse was engaged in the sports and 
pastimes of the people. During the latter half of the twelfth 
century primitive horse sports, the most remote antecedents of 
modern polo and the gymkhana, were popular in England. In 
1377 the first race was run between Richard Second and the Earl 
of Arundel. Racing and hunting have been followed in England 
for five centuries. 

The general use of horses in the industries came later, 
although there is evidence of their having worked at draft in 
England during the eleventh century. Their importance in this 
line of service has increased in proportion to the development of 
agriculture and commerce. 

Man's Obligation to the Horse in Service. — The horse is an 
involuntary, dependent party of the second part to all contracts ; 
a silent and submissive partner in his alliance with his master. 
Theirs is a business relation in which the credits are all on one 
side, the debits on the other, and the horse is never accorded an 
accounting. Yet if the master would be fair and equitable, he 
must either concede a moral if not a civil obligation to pay for 
services rendered, or exact only such service as his care and 
management of his horses has placed to his credit. 

In the feral state the horse is self-sustaining, expending his 
energy by utilizing his power or speed in securing feed, water, 



RELATION BETWEEN HORSE AND MASTER 221 

and protection from the elements and predatory foes ; under 
natural conditions such expenditure may be considerable. 

In Domestication. — The husbandman, with his system of 
domestication, substitutes an artificial for a natural environ- 
ment, relieving the horse of all responsibility in the matter of 
feed, water, and protection, conserving to himself the energy 
that would otherwise be expended for that purpose. There 
is thus made available to the husbandman energy for Avork of 
whatever character the horse is capable, and to just the extent 
that energy has been saved. To balance the account, horses 
working up to their full capacity must be furnished all that is 
required for their subsistence and comfort; to underfeed or 
overwork is to overdraw the account, and against one who has 
not the usual privilege of protest. 

Economic efficiency of the horse in service is more essential 
now than ever before, on account of the high cost of feedstuffs 
and the continued improvement in the motor vehicles with which 
the horse is in competition. 

Two men may ride or drive the same horse or team over the 
same route with the same load and in the same time, yet there 
will be a marked difference in the condition of their horses after 
having accomplished the same task. This difference is due to a 
more intelligent use of the available motive power in the one 
case than in the other. If the various ways in which energy 
may be expended in the performance of work were more care- 
fully taken into account, both the period of usefulness and the 
daily capacity of the average horse would be much increased. 

A Horse's Capacity for Work. — The unit of measurement 
by which work is expressed is the foot pound or the foot ton, i.e., 
the power required to lift a weight of one pound or one ton to a 
height of one foot against the force of gravity. The energy re- 
quired to do work equivalent to 33,000 foot pounds per minute 
constitutes a horse-power. This estimate of a horse's power is 
not literally correct, however, but exceeds the capacity for work 
of the average horse by about one-third. 

Horses have been forced, experimentally, to do the equiva- 
lent of 7800 foot tons in a day, but that is far in excess of their 
normal capacity, as shown by the marked loss in weight which 



222 THE HORSE IN SERVICE 

attended such efforts. Three thousand foot tons has been fixed 
by Col. Fred Smith, Veterinary Department, English Army,* as 
a reasonable daily requirement of the horse, in work. This 
amounts, in actual performance, to: 

Distance travelled. 

Walking at 3 miles an hour for cS.7 hours 26 miles 

Walking at 4 miles an hour for 5.3 hours 21 miles 

Walking- at 5 miles an hour for 3.7 hours 18 miles 

Trotting at 8 miles an hour for 1.5 hours 12 miles 

Cantering at 11 miles an hour for 1 11 miles 

The same authority has determined a horse's maximum 
muscular exertion to be 68 to 78 per cent of his body weight, 
as registered by his pull on the dynamometer, not on the load. 
Such a pull, however, could be exerted but a few seconds, as 
in the starting of a very heavy load. The walking draft of a 
horse is given by Kingf as about 50 per cent of his body weight, 
while for a steady, continuous pull a draft of from one-eighth to 
one-tenth of his own weight is all that can be expected. 

The weight-carrying capacity of a horse as reported by Smith 
is from one-fifth to one-sixth his weight, at severe exertion. If 
the pace- is more moderate the weight carried may be increased. 
The weight carried is expressed in England by stone — one stone 
being fourteen pounds. 

The factors determining the severity of a horse's work are 
the draft, of the load, the pace at which the load is hauled or car- 
ried, and the duration of the period of work. 

Draft of the Load. — The traction required to move a load 
is dependent upon the following conditions, acording to King: 

1. The extent to which the pull is opposed by the force of 
gravity. The increase in the draft required to move a load up 
hill is proportionate to the increase in the grade. A 10 per cent 
grade increases the draft 10 per cent of the load. 

2. The resistance offered by the road-bed to the wheel. This 
is least when the road is smooth and hard ; greatest when rough 
or yielding. Rough roads impose a series of obstacles over which 

* Veterinary Hygiene. 
t Agricultural Physics. 



RELATION BETWEEN HORSE AND MASTER 223 

the wheel must travel, while the depression of a soft road surface 
by the wheel creates a grade up which the wheel is continually 
being drawn, in effect, the degree of the grade being proportion- 
ate to the depth to which the wheel cuts. Experiments have 
shown that the traction of a given load over a common 
road is from three to five times as great as in the case of a well- 
paved surface. 

3. Friction of the box on the axle. The degree of friction 
depends, primarily, upon the weight of the load, but may be 
modified by the style and condition of the axle and bearings. 

4. Width of the tire. On the ordinary road the wide tire 
reduces the necessary draft by distributing the weight borne by 
the wheel over a greater area of road surface, thereby reducing 
the tendency of the wheel to cut into the roadway and giving 
the effect of a hard road, with its advantages. In an unusually 
soft or muddy road the wide tire may be a disadvantage. The 
saving in draft of as much as 120 per cent has been effected by 
the use of a six-inch tire instead of a one and one-half inch tire 
on ordinary going. 

5. Size of wheel. It has already been shown that the de- 
pression of the road by the wheel results in that wheel being con- 
tinually pulled up a grade, the steepness of which is in inverse 
proportion to the diameter of the wheel. Furthermore, the lia- 
bility of the wheel to cut is in direct proportion to its diameter. 
The larger the wheel the greater the base of support for the load 
and the less the tendency to depress. Therefore, the smaller 
the wheel the greater the draft. Also, the greater the diameter 
of the wheel the more easily it is lifted over the obstacles which 
the rough surfaces of some roads present (Fig. 125). 

6. The distribution of the load on the wagon. When only 
part of a load is carried it is customary with teamsters to place 
it well forward on the wagon for obvious reasons, but when a 
full load is put on it should be so distributed as to balance and 
divide the weight equally on all four corners, if the wheels are of 
equal size, or if the hind wheels are somewhat larger, as is 
usually the case, more weight should be allowed on the rear 
axle. Lightening the load forward has the advantage of per- 
mitting a certain amount of play in the front axle over rough 



224 THE HORSE IN SERVICE 

going. If the load is not evenly distributed, whichever wheel or 
wheels are overloaded cut more deeply into the road-bed, thus 
increasing the draft as described above. Furthermore, by the 
cutting in of one or more wheels the weight of the load is shifted 
in that direction, which increases the degree of the cutting still 
deeper. 

7. The line of draft. As a general principle the line of draft 
should be parallel to the direction in which the wheels travel. 
On an absolutely unyielding surface this plane is parallel to the 
general surface of the roadway, hence the draw bars on railway 
cars and locomotives line up parallel with the rails. The ordi- 
nary wagon, however, is hauled over surfaces more or less yield- 
ing, consequently, allowing for the depression of the wheels, 




Fig. 125. — The draft acting in the line A B pulls on a bent lever, BCD, raising the 
weight which may be considered as concentrated at D. The longer the arm B C and the 
shorter the arm C D, the more easily will the draft raise the weight t>f the wheel and for the 
same sized obstacle the larger wheel will evidently have the advantage. In the figure the 
lines of draft make the same angle with the radius-arm of the lever. If the lines of draft 
are parallel, the advantage of the larger wheel is still greater. 

they are really travelling more or less up hill at an angle with 
the apparent surface of the road. There should, therefore, be 
a corresponding slant in the line of draft, to avoid pulling down 
upon or against the incline of the depressed surface. The ad- 
justment of the line of draft is governed by the length of the 
traces, on the one hand, and the height of their attachment at both 
hame and single-tree, on the other. In making such adjustment 
it should be borne in mind that, other things being equal, the 
traction is less the nearer the team is to its load. 

8. Attachment of traces to names. Whatever adjustment 
of traces is made for the purpose of giving the proper line of 
draft, it should not interefere with the angle which this line 



RELATION BETWEEN HORSE AND MASTER 225 

forms with the hames. With a properly fitted collar, the pull 
should be as near as possible at right angles to the line of resist- 
ance, the hames, in order that the collar may bear directly 
against the shoulder, and not be borne down upon the withers 
nor up against the trachea. Furthermore, the height on the 
hames at which the attachment of the traces is made should be 
such as to distribute the bearing proportionately over the collar- 
bed, and allow the greatest freedom of shoulder motion. If 
attached too high the greatest weight is borne on that part of 
the collar-bed which is least capable of sustaining it, while if 
attached too low, as is more commonly the case, the point of the 
shoulder is overworked as well as being seriously hampered in 
its movement (Fig. 126). 

9. The fit of the collar. While not directly influencing the 
degree of traction required to move a load, it has much to do 
with the application of the power by which the load is pulled. 
A horse's draft capacity is very often seriously impaired by his 
inability to exert himself to the limit against an ill-fitting collar. 
It is far easier to keep shoulders right than to restore them to 
that condition once they have gone wrong. The collar should be 
so well made as to retain its shape in use; it should be perfectly 
smooth and quite hard on its bearing surface, sweat pads more 
often inducing than correcting shoulder ills ; it should conform 
to the general shape of the forehand of the horse, draft horses, 
with their comparatively low but muscular withers, requiring 
ample width at this point; and it should fit in such a way as 
to insure the best relation between the collar itself and those 
structures constituting the collar-bed with which it comes in 
contact (Fig. 127). A properly fitted collar should admit the 
thickness of the fingers between it and the shoulder all around, 
with sufficient room for the hand or even the wrist, over the 
trachea and the withers. Made-to-measure collars are a good 
investment, and, needless to say, the fitting should be made with 
the horse in working condition. 

Dutch or breast collars should be so adjusted as to just miss 
the point of the shoulder below, yet not compress the windpipe 
above (Fig. 128). 

The Rate at which the Load is Moved. — The pace at which 
15 



226 



THE HORSE IN SERVICE 



a horse is capable of exerting his draft power to the best advan- 
tage is from two to two and a half miles per hour, the ordinary 
walking rate. Power and pace are not correlated ; the speed 
horse to accomplish his utmost must have the lightest impost 
of weight, while the draft horse requires full time allowance 
for the best performance of which he is capable; therefore, as 
more pace is required, less load can be hauled. 

The Duration of the Period of Work, or the Distance 
Travelled. — The traction which a horse is capable of maintain- 
ing continuously, for a day's work, as plowing, is much less 









Fia. 126. — The angle 
formed by the traces with 
the hames should be as near 
a right angle as possible in 
order to insure the proper dis- 
tribution of collar bearing on 
the collar bed. 



Fig. 127. — The scapulo- 
humeral and elbow-joints, 
showing the position of the 
bones of the shoulder and 
arm and their relation to 
collar bearing. 



Fig. 128. — The 
breast or Dutch collar 
in proper position. 



than that which can be accomplished in one short, supreme effort, 
as in the starting of a load or even for a short haul. 

There is an intimate give-and-take relationship existing 
among these factors by which the severity of a horse's work is 
determined. They represent the means by which energy is 
expended. 

The Application of the Power. — What might be considered 
as the application of the power, on the part of the rider or 
driver, is a most important factor in limiting what a horse can 
do. Two drivers will show very different results in what they 
take out of their horses in accomplishing the same work. One 
husbands his horse's strength, speed, and stamina in such a way 



RELATION BETWEEN HORSE AND MASTER 227 

as to secure the maximum return for every unit of energy ex- 
pended, with always a reserve upon which to draw, if need be. 
His horses are working- or going well within themselves. An- 
other, either by his ignorance or inconsideration, is always ex- 
pending more of his horse's resources than is necessary to ac- 
complish a given task, with the result that he is continually 
overdrawing the amount of energy available, and his horses are 
soon spent. 

Warming Up Slowly. — To suddenly open wide the throttle 
of an engine or to throw to the last position, in one stroke, the 
control lever of a trolley car is productive of great mechanical 
injury, yet such abrupt application of horse power is common. 
A new engine runs " stiff " till warmed up ; so does a horse, and 
especially an unsound one. A horse starting on a day's work 
or a road trip should have the collar warmed and shaped to his 
shoulders, his muscles actively contracting and extending, his 
joints thoroughly lubricated, breathing and heart action grad- 
ually accelerated, and bowels evacuated before he is called upon 
for his best effort. In the reverse order he should be gradually 
cooled and blown out before being put away at the conclusion 
of the day's work or road trip. 

Notice to Drivers. — The following advice to drivers copied 
from a large city stable is typical of what is sought in most 
well-managed establishments : 

1. Walk your horses for five squares going to and from the 
stable. 

2. Water horses as often as possible. 

3. In case of a sick horse notify the stable immediately. 

4. Have your horses' manes and tails brushed, buckles 
straight, and straps in keepers before starting. 

5. Reliable information of the ill treatment of any of our 
stock by drivers will result in suspension and, in serious cases, 
in prosecution. 

Trotting down hill is much more injurious to legs and feet, 
though less fatiguing, than trotting up hill. A horse holds his 
breath during extreme effort, as in pulling; one with a tube in 
his throat will have his pulling power much impaired because 



228 THE HORSE IN SERVICE 

he cannot hold his breath by closing the glottis. Therefore, an 
opportunity to fill the lungs by a couple of full, deep breaths at 
frequent intervals during a hard pull will not only slow down 
the hurried, shallow breathing, but will actually increase the 
power of the horse to pull. Every advantage of grade and going 
should be availed of, and the horse spared most when great effort 
would be most futile. 

The Natural Gait. — The majority of horses acquire a natural 
pace which they maintain with little effort. If continually urged 
to a slightly faster rate of speed they are soon distressed, even 
though the actual saving of time in the distance travelled is 
immaterial. 

Condition. — The fundamental factor determining efficiency 
for work, other things being equal, is condition or fitness. Fit- 
ting renders a horse more efficient, because by it there is estab- 
lished a state of health, vigor, and muscular tone in which there 
is a concordant action between lungs, heart, muscles, digestion, 
and nerve control. Condition is indicated by a spirit of keen- 
ness for work, brightness of the eye, bloom of the coat, and an 
absence of fat, exposing the outline of the individual muscles, 
with a characteristic hardness of the muscles themselves. Con- 
dition is a matter of degree, the most extreme of which is found 
in the race horse and hunter, less in the road and work horse, 
and still less in the park or show horse, a surplus of fat being 
desirable in the latter case. 

Fat is an element of condition in the draft horse in which it 
has the real advantage of adding to his weight in the most natural 
way, as well as affording him a reserve store of energy upon 
which to draw in his long hours of arduous daily service. It 
must be put on, however, under the same conditions as obtain 
in the regular life of the draft horse, namely, while at work; 
otherwise it will prove an impediment and will not be retained 
long. 

Balance Between Feed and Exercise. — Condition is the 
result of the mutual balance between feed and exercise, and re- 
quires the keenest powers of observation for its detection. Over- 
feeding and insufficient exercise on the one hand, and under- 



RELATION BETWEEN HORSE AND MASTER 229 

feeding with, overwork on the other, are the two causes which 
destroy the balance necessary for condition. It can only be 
obtained by degrees and cannot be forced without disastrous 
results. Exercise and feeding should be gradually begun and 
results carefully noted day by day, with a uniform increase up 
to the maximum and a correspondingly gradual decrease when 
the horse is to be thrown out of training. 

Hardening /he Skin. — Draft and saddle horses should have 
their skins hardened to the friction of the collar and saddle in 
addition to being rendered physically fit. 

A marked difference between individuals is found in the 
manner in which they round into form, in the fitting process. 
Frequently those which attain fitness most readily are the first 
to go stale. 

Degree and Time. — The more extreme the degree to which a 
horse is conditioned the shorter the period during which that 
degree of fitness can be maintained. The modern practice of 
keeping race horses in training and fit to start at any time during 
prolonged campaign seasons presents many more difficulties than 
fitting for a single race, when the horses can be trained to the 
minute. 

An Intuitive Art. — The fitting of horses for racing, showing, 
or work is an art which requires the keenest horse sense, judg- 
ment, and discernment. There is no school for trainers ; the 
art is natural, not acquired, and it is doubtful if the master 
trainers themselves could coach another to do what is intuitive 
with them. 

Condition has an economic importance, for a horse is capable 
of his maximum efficiency, in his respective fields of sendee, 
only when fit. The work horse, on account of the regularity of 
his occupation, offers the least difficulty to the conditioner; 
while the saddle and harness horse, whose work is more severe 
when it does come, and it comes with the greatest degree of 
irregularity, in accordance with the whim of their owner, re- 
quire special care. There is no correlation between fitness for 
work and resistance to unsoundness, but a leg-weary horse is 
especially liable to interfere, forge, stumble or slip, thus predis- 
posing to permanent injury. 



230 THE HORSE IN SERVICE 

REVIEW 

1. When, where, by whom and for what purpose were horses first 

used? 

2. What is the master's obligation to his horse? 

3. What is a horse's average capacity in foot tons per day, draft, and 

weight carrying ? 

4. What factors determine the severity of a horse's labor? 

5. Upon what does the draft of a load depend? 

6. Describe the proper fit of collar and adjustment of traces and names. 

7. How should horse power be used for greatest efficiency? 

8. When is a horse in condition and how is it indicated? 

9. Of what does conditioning a horse consist? and what personal 

qualifications are involved? 
10. What may be the consequences of working horses when not in con- 
dition? 



CHAPTER XIV 

THE FEEDING OF HORSES 

One of our leading texts on feeding has this most appro- 
priate quotation on its fly leaf: " The eye of the master fattens 
his cattle." 

The feeding of stock is both an art and a science. The artist 
does not employ a T-square and compass, nor does he resort to 
mathematical equations to express his conceptions on canvas. 
The accuracy of his results is in proportion to his skill. The 
scientist, on the other hand, is exact to the fifth decimal and is 
held to the most absolute accuracy in his methods of determi- 
nation. 

Scientific research has provided us with most valuable data 
bearing on the subject of nutrition, but the possession of such 
data alone does not constitute all of the qualifications of a suc- 
cessful feeder. In an effort to make feeding an exact science 
there is danger of losing the art. Provide two feeders of similar 
classes of stock with the same scientific data and allow them both 
access to the same mows and bins, yet there may be a wide varia- 
tion in the results obtained by each. One lacks the art of apply- 
ing the science; it is as essential to know how as what to feed. 

Art in Feeding Horses. — This is especially true of the feed- 
ing of horses. The block animal has simply to be a superior 
carcass, and to this end he is provided with every advantage, 
and requires from but a few weeks to three years, at the most, for 
its attainment. A horse's obligation is to do rather than to be; 
he is required to perform more complex functions, and for a 
period of such duration as will justify the greater initial invest- 
ment which he represents. The nature of a horse's work is so 
exacting and yet so variable, his opportunity for mental and 
physical disturbances so great, and his misuse so common, that 
in his case no standard or rule can be applied unalterably. 

Successful horse feeders are " artists " with eyes for the 
" fattening " of their stock. They balance their rations, not so 

231 



232 THE HORSE IN SERVICE 

much from a knowledge of either German or American feeding 
standards, as from the actual requirements of the horses them- 
selves. These requirements are indicated by their spirit or 
" feel " ; the expression of their countenance ; the condition of 
their coats and legs; and the color, odor and consistency of the 
faeces. If feeders read these signs aright it will usually be found 
that the rations fed will check up very closely to what would be 
a balanced ration if calculated on the basis of generally accepted 
feeding standards. 

Two Systems Compared. — In the feeding of cattle and hogs 
the lot is the usual unit, but in the case of horses, even more than 
with dairy cows, the individual is the unit, and even his individ- 
ual requirements may be subject to considerable variation. 
One system of supposedly economic feeding is to calculate, in 
the office, from the requirements set forth in the Wolff-Lehmann 
or modified standards, the rations to be fed, compare them with 
the stock of feed on hand and the number of horses to be fed, 
then notify the stable boss that his feed should last till a certain 
date, and hold him responsible for any shortage. This system 
ignores, completely, the individual requirements of the different 
horses, which only the artist feeder can appreciate and meet. 
Another way is to employ a thoroughly competent feeder, pro- 
vide anything and everything that he may desire in the feed 
line, allow him every latitude in the use of it, and then hold him 
responsible for results only, as measured by the fitness and 
capacity of his horses for their work. The former method may 
be more economic of feed consumed, but the latter will be much 
more productive per unit of feed consumed, which is the real 
economic consideration. 

How the Feed is Used. — The horse utilizes the constituents 
of his ration, — the water, ash, protein, carbohydrates and fat, 
chemical compounds, — in the growth and maintenance of his 
body structure, in supporting the vital processes by which he 
lives, and in performing those functions which we designate as 
work. The extent to which the ration contributes to either or 
all of these depends upon the relative proportions of each of the 
compounds it contains. 

Water is present in considerable amount in all tissues, being 



THE FEEDING OF HORSES 233 

contained in the protoplasm of the cell, the unit of structure of 
the animal body. 

The inorganic material of bone, to which its strength and 
texture are due, is largely calcium phosphate, although other 
mineral or ash constituents are present in other tissues of the 
body. 

Protein is the chief source of the cell protoplasm and is the 
most important tissue builder. 

The carbohydrates are fat formers and, in addition, furnish 
the energy necessary to do work, after the operation of the vital 
functions and the maintenance of the body temperature have 
been taken care of. 

Fat serves the same purposes, but with a caloric or heal 
value 2.25 times as great. 

Rations Not All Alike. — It is obvious that mature animals 
at work, at rest, pregnant mares, or growing colts require rations 
made up of these compounds in different proportions. When the 
proportions of the protein on the one hand and the carbohy- 
drates plus the fats on the other are such as to just meet the 
requirements of the horse in question, with no excess of either, 
the ration is said to be balanced. The relation of the protein 
to the carbohydrates plus fats is expressed as the nutritive ratio. 
This is determined by adding to the digestible carbohydrates 
contained in the ration, the fats multiplied by 2.25, then divid- 
ing the sum by the amount of the protein. The protein is to the 
carbohydrate as one is to the quotient. 

The ration is considered wide if the ratio of carbohydrates 
plus fats is large when compared with the protein. If the ratio 
is small the ration is called narrow. 

There is no relation between the balance and the sufficiency 
of the ration. A horse may starve on a perfectly balanced ration 
of insufficient quantity, or he may be surfeited with feed and 
yet suffer from malnutrition if the relative amounts of protein 
and carbohydrates plus fats are not' properly balanced. 

In view of the fact that maintenance requirements, which 
amount to about 50 per cent of a full ration, will be satisfied 
before anything is available to be turned to work, the full ration, 
so far as quantity is concerned, is most productive. 



234 THE HORSE IN SERVICE 

Nutritive Requirements of the Horse. — The horse's daily 
nutritive requirements, according to the Wolff-Lehmann feed- 
ing standards, are as follows. The amounts are for one thousand 
pounds of live weight : 

Dry Carbo- Nutritive 

matter Protein hydrates Fats ratio 

Light work 20 lb. 1.5 lb. 9.5 lb. .4 lb. 1:7 

Medium work 24 1b. 2 lb. 11 lb. .6 1b. 1:6.2 

Heavy work 26 lb. 2.5 lb. 13.3 lb. .8 lb. 1:6 

Smith * concludes, however, from the investigations of Lang- 
worth, of the United States Department of Agriculture, and 
others, that the protein standard is too high; that the majority 
of American work horses are doing their work acceptably, with- 
out loss in condition, on a ration of 1 to 8 instead of 1 to 6. 

Three Types of Feed. — A ration may be composed of three 
types of feedstuffs, — concentrates, roughage, and succulence. 
The relative amounts of each, which the ration should contain, 
will be determined by the class of horses fed. The horse is an 
automobile in that he moves by his own power, and is not a sta- 
tionary engine, as are cattle, sheep, and hogs, so far as their pro- 
ductiveness is concerned. It is important, therefore, that he 
expend as little as possible of energy available, in simply trans- 
porting the mass of his own body. Hence, the horse at work must 
cany his ration in more or less concentrated form, according to 
the nature of the work. But some bulk in the digestive tract 
is necessary, for physiological reasons. A horse would prac- 
tically starve to death on concentrates alone. Roughage should 
be allowed but its amount regulated according to the nature of 
the work, and it should be fed mostly at night, when it will cause 
least interference. An idle horse can take a greater proportion 
of his ration in roughage than one at work, and the drafter 
moving at a walk, with weight an advantage, can be allowed 
more roughage than the race horse, in whose case weight is a 
handicap and bulk an impediment. 

Succulence is useful in the ration, not only for the nutrients 
it contains but for the palatability which it lends and its physio- 

* Profitable Stock Feeding. 



THE FEEDING OF HORSES 235 

logical effect on the digestive tract and condition of the animal 
in general. The use of succulence for horses at work must be 
guarded or it will induce such a lax condition of the bowels as 
to seriously interfere with their serviceability. Succulence is 
admissible according to the nature of the work a horse does, as 
in the case of roughage. 

CONCENTRATES FOR HORSES 

Oats. — The concentrate best adapted to the feeding of horses 
is oats ; on account of both chemical and physical composition, 
they stand first in this class. They not only meet the protein and 
carbohydrate requirements best, but the hull is an advantage, in 
so extending the kernel as to insure most complete digestion. 
Besides, there seems ample reason for believing that oats improve 
the fettle, especially of harness and saddle horses. The cost 
price of oats is high, however, and in the interests of economy 
they may be displaced by the other feeds, either wholly or in 
part, without any serious detriment to the ration. 

Corn is the logical substitute for oats in most sections of this 
country. In fact, economy demands the use of corn in the ration 
of the work horse to a much greater extent than it is used at 
present. 

When its general use in the corn belt States is considered, 
much of the prejudice of the Eastern feeders loses weight. The 
average Iowa horse, for instance, is produced by a dam which 
was raised on com, and had no other grain during the period 
of carrying and suckling her foal. The foal receives a little 
cracked corn or even cob com for his first bite, with the amount 
gradually increased until he is allowed from 20 to 40 ears per 
day at maturity. In spite of this fact, when these very horses 
come East, top our markets, and pass under the management of 
the city stable boss, com is absolutely prohibited as dangerous to 
feed ; yet it requires a long time to induce and teach some of 
these horses to eat anything else. 

Corn Supplements. — An exclusive com ration is not to be 
recommended, but com in combination with either oats and 
bran, bran or cottonseed meal alone is all right. Recent inves- 
tigations at the Iowa station have shown that com with cotton- 



236 THE HORSE IN SERVICE 

seed meal, in the proportions of 9 to 1, constitutes a perfectly 
satisfactory ration for the work horse, and is effective of a very 
material saving in cost. 

Ear com is most desirable for horse feeding, as the kernels 
keep best in the original package, as it were. There is a certain 
freshness about it that horses prefer, and, besides, they are com- 
pelled to eat it slowly. Corn in this form, however, is bulky to 
handle in the trade and few city stables are equipped to store it 
in any quantity. The most reasonable objection to the more 
general feeding of corn, off the farm, is the difficulty in securing 
ear corn in good condition. 

Shelled or cracked corn is more convenient for all but the 
farmer feeder. It is not so safe nor satisfactory as ear corn, 
however. 

Cornmeal coarsely ground, and in combination with oats, 
bran, or cottonseed meal is excellent, providing the corn can be 
ground as required. But the commercial meal is more liable to 
cause trouble by its oil becoming rancid and the mass spoiling 
than is corn in any other form. 

It is probable that the opposition to corn for horses, so 
common among both city feeders and their veterinary advisers, 
is due more to the quality and condition of the corn which usu- 
ally reaches city horses than to the composition of the corn itself. 
The satisfactory results which attend its judicious use in the 
country, generally, would seem to vindicate the contents of the 
corn crib from responsibility for the alleged evils of corn feed- 
ing. By properly balancing the ration of which corn forms a 
part, the much dreaded " heating " effect may be largely over- 
come. 

Bran ranks third as a horse feed, although it can hardly be 
considered as an exclusive feed, except for occasional or excep- 
tional use. In work stables it is customary to feed a bran mash, 
preferably wet, at least once a week, and that Saturday night. 
The practice is commendable, as it tends to offset the effect of 
continued high feeding of horses at hard work, as well as being 
acceptable to the horses for the sake of variety. Much depends 
upon the preparation of the mash. The coarse, flaky, winter 
wheat bran is preferable; add sufficient water to moisten it 



THE FEEDING OF HORSES 237 

thoroughly, so that it breaks nicely, but without any sem- 
blance to a slop, then season with salt and a little ginger or 
gentian. 

Shorts and middlings are too concentrated to be fed to horses 
except in small quantities, and then they should be in combina- 
tion with some of the other more bulky grains. Some horses show 
an especial susceptibility to digestive disturbances when mid- 
dlings are fed. 

Dried brewers' grains, now quite generally fed to dairy 
cattle, have not been utilized by horse feeders to the extent that 
trials of their feeding value would seem to justify. The in- 
creasing demand for them among dairymen will no doubt ad- 
vance the price, but they are comparatively much cheaper than 
either oats or bran. In combination with either of these or with 
corn they have given satisfaction so far as they have been tried. 
They are reckoned about equivalent to oats, pound for pound. 

Barley is the most common cereal feed for horses in some 
parts of the country where it is extensively grown. It is well 
adapted for that purpose provided it is crushed before feeding. 
The presence of the awns may prove irritating to the horse's 
mouth. 

Canada field peas deserve more general consideration than 
they receive from horse feeders. When available they may be 
profitably employed in combination with other concentrates in 
making up the work horse ration. 

Linseed oil meal is more commonly fed as a conditioner than 
for its nutritive properties, although the Iowa station has shown 
favorable results from oil meal combined with corn and oats for 
the purpose of reducing the cost of the ration, the oil meal dis- 
placing the oats otherwise required to balance the corn. It has 
a most valuable physiological effect on the bowels, coat, and the 
nutritive functions in general. It helps restore condition in 
horses which have either been overdone by feeding or are in a 
state of malnutrition. It is usually fed to secure finish and 
bloom, in fitting horses for show or sale, in quantities up to but 
not exceeding a pound per day. 

Cottonseed meal has been tested in feeding trials at both 
the Pennsylvania and Iowa stations, with such satisfactory re- 



238 THE HORSE IN SERVICE 

suits that it is now generally recommended as a complete or 
partial substitute for oats, in combination with corn, to cheapen 
the ration. No bad results are reported from feeding two pounds 
per day. It is not palatable and its taste should be obscured in 
the mixture with other feeds. 

Molasses. — Little was said of molasses as a horse feed, al- 
though it had been fed to a limited extent as a conditioner, until 
about 1900, when a United States Army veterinarian, Doctor 
Griffin, reported its exclusive use with hay by the native Cubans, 
their hardy ponies doing remarkably well. This report was pub- 
lished in the American Veterinary Review and engaged the at- 
tention of Doctor Geo. L. Berns, of Brooklyn, !New York, who 
gave it a thorough trial in some of the large stables of draft 
horses under his supervision. The results were such as to thor- 
oughly convince him that molasses deserved a place in the dietary 
of all work horses, not alone for the sake of economy but because 
it has a most beneficial effect upon the digestive system. Dr. 
Berns still holds to this opinion, which has been quite generally 
confirmed by others who have made observations along this line. 
Remarkable results have been secured by a liberal feeding of 
molasses in bringing back to condition horses either convalescent 
from sickness or those in very poor flesh. It is a valuable 
" coaxer " to shy feeders. Its laxative effect must be guarded 
against to a certain extent. Molasses is usually fed in quanti- 
ties of from one pint to one quart, per feed, diluted with at least 
an equal quantity of water and preferably mixed with other 
feeds. Reports are made of feeding as much as ten pounds per 
day to mules in Louisiana. There are about twelve pounds to 
the gallon. It is especially well adapted to the coarse, mixed 
ration in which cut hay or straw forms the base. 

Whatever the ration," its palatability as well as its nutritive 
value is increased by the addition of molasses. It is a constit- 
uent of many proprietary feeds, serving to disguise and render 
more edible the fraudulent ones. The black strap cane molasses, 
not the beet-sugar product, is the kind fed. Undiluted molasses 
is unsatisfactory, as it smears the muzzle, and from it the sides 
of the horse, and is especially objectionable in fly time. 

Wheat and rye both make acceptable horse feeds provided 



THE FEEDING OF HORSES 239 

they arc crushed to prevent the formation of paste in the mouth. 
The market price of wheat, especially, allows of its being fed 

only under unusual conditions. 

Other materials, the availability of which is more or less 
restricted, may prove worthy of a place in the horse's ration when 
and where they can be secured at low cost. For example, one 
enterprising Philadelphia city teamster met the high cost of 
oats and com, of recent years, by introducing a ration of mo- 
lasses and stale bread, on which his horses did well. 

ROUGHAGE FOR HORSES 

Timothy is in a class by itself as a roughage for horses, the 
leafless nature of the plant insuring nearly perfect curing and 
freedom from dust in the hay. In addition there is a constrin- 
gent property in timothy by virtue of which horses filled up with 
it keep hard and do not become washy on the road, as horses will 
if fed on the hay from a legume or on fresh grass. The market 
value of timothy hay is not in accordance with its chemical com- 
position. The very feature which horsemen favor in it is cor- 
related with a low coefficient of digestibility. As a means of 
affording, in the ration, the bulk and volume necessary for a 
physiological distention of the digestive tract, to maintain it 
normally functional, timothy is ideal. Horses like it, if not too 
ripe, but as a source of nutriment it is inferior to the hay of 
clover, alfalfa, and other legumes. 

Legumes, with their extensive leaf surfaces, are much richer 
in digestible nutrients but more difficult to properly cure. When 
improperly cured they are unfit to be fed to horses. The causal 
relation between clover hay and heaves has been fairly well 
established. It is alleged not to be due to the dust, in general. 
with which clover hay is likely to be filled, but to a specific 
fungus, the growth of which is peculiar to legumes. It is true 
that the history of most cases of heaves reveals clover hay in the 
ration, although there is nothing remarkable about this, as the 
majority of horses are so fed. On the whole, we cannot afford to 
count clover-mixed hay out of the ration of the average horse. 
But in view of the possibility that, may result from feeding it, 
we should consider carefully the quality, and guard the quan- 



240 THE HORSE IN SERVICE 

tity, of that allowed. It is best mixed with timothy in about such 
proportions as come in the second season's cutting from a timo- 
thy-clover seeding. 

Alfalfa is in the experimental stage as a constituent of the 
horse's ration. There is no reason why its judicious use, in com- 
bination witli timothy, should not be recommended. Good 
alfalfa hay is about the most tempting thing that can be put 
before a horse in the winter time, as he himself will attest if 
allowed the opportunity. In addition to its paiatability and 
high content of easily available protein, alfalfa has a beneficial 
action on the digestive tract. The amount fed, with timothy, 
can be so regulated as to control the bowels to a fine degree. On 
account of its 10 to 15 per cent of protein, alfalfa should be 
balanced by the other constituents of the ration, lest an excess 
of protein be fed. An excess of nitrogen would require elimina- 
tion by the kidneys, which may prove injurious. 

Alfalfa hay has not been fed in the East extensively enough 
to determine whether or not it may induce heaves. Those parts 
of the country where it is most extensively grown and fed fur- 
nish only exceptional cases of heaves from any cause. It would 
be difficult to obtain a cured forage plant in a more perfect state 
of preservation than some of the alfalfa hay that is produced in 
the semi-arid Eocky Mountain States. So long as hay produced 
under the ideal conditions for growth and curing which prevail 
there can be placed on Eastern markets, to compete with the 
home-grown product, favor is likely to be shown the former. 
The Eastern farmer should be encouraged in the production of 
alfalfa. The addition of alfalfa hay to a ration will both reduce 
the cost of maintenance and improve the condition of any class 
of horses. 

Ground alfalfa maybe used in place of bran, in combination 
with other concentrates, but unless combined with molasses or 
moistened it is so light and fine as to be readily blown away, 
and has the objection of being dusty. Many prepared alfalfa 
feeds, of this class, are offered to the trade. The hay has the 
same nutritive value and, if of good quality, will be as com- 
pletely and enthusiastically consumed as when artificially pre- 
pared. These facts argue for the more general use of the hay. 

Cow pea and soy bean hay are both reported upon favor- 



THE FEEDING OF HORSES 241 

ably by those who have fed them as a part of the roughage. Like 
corn stover they are available to feed only on the farms where 
grown. 

Corn Stover. — In the early winter, before the leeching and 
1 (lowing away of its most nutritive and palatable parts has been 
accomplished, corn stover is one of the best kinds of roughage 
for horses, either at rest or at work. It has a nutritive value 
about equal to timothy hay, from which it affords a change. 
Horses do not fill to excess on it as they do on hay, and it is posi- 
tively beneficial to horses which have mild cases of heaves 
aggravated by the feeding of hay of even good quality. Horses 
eat the leaves and pick at the stalks readily without shredding. 
In fact, they seem to prefer stripping the leaves from the stalks 
rather than seeking out the finer parts from among the sections 
of stalk, in the cut or shredded stover. Idle horses will strip 
and eat quite a large portion of the stalk itself, if not over-sup- 
plied with the finer parts. More corn stover will be eaten if hay 
is not furnished at the same time. 

In many parts of the South the tops and leaves are pulled 
from the corn plants, cured, and done up in bundles for horse 
feed. Pulled corn and sheaf oats are highly esteemed for the 
purpose of bringing back a stale show or race horse or to start 
one already in poor condition. 

Oat straw, if bright, well cleaned, and not too ripe, does 
well for horses not at hard work. Its feeding condition is im- 
proved by chaffing and moistening with diluted molasses. 

Sheaf Oats. — When available, sheaf oats are excellent for 
horses with ample time in which to feed. 

Cereal Hay. — The cereals, especially barley and oats, either 
or both in combination with field peas, make excellent hay for 
horses if cut in the dough stage. Their use, like that of sheaf 
oats and pulled corn, would be resorted to in order to meet special 
requirements or secure unusual results, rather than in the eco- 
nomic maintenance of horse power. 

SUCCULEXCE 

Succulence is most essential to horses which do not have the 
stimulating effect of their ration offset by an abundance of ex- 
16 



242 THE HORSE IN SERVICE 

ercise, although its use is not objected to either with work horses 
or even race horses in training. 

Pasture. — Grass is the most natural and satisfactory form 
in which to furnish succulence, as it also necessitates healthful 
exercise in the open air in order to secure it. Unfortunately, it 
is not available at all seasons of the year nor under all circum- 
stances. It must, therefore, be substituted or supplemented. 

Carrots are the best root crop for horse feeding. Like other 
roots, their physiological benefits outweigh their nutritive value. 
For the winter feeding of colts and brood mares they are espe- 
cially desirable, while they form a staple article of diet in most 
stallion-importing establishments, where it is necessary to carry 
the horses along in high condition all the time and yet keep them 
right. Carrots are fed either whole or sliced, but to slice them 
to a size too large to swallow but too small to chew is more liable 
to induce choking than if fed uncut. 

Soiling crops are sometimes fed to breeding or show horses. 
In France it is common to feed green cut alfalfa (Lucerne). 
Such green material must be fed to horses as soon as wilted and 
before heating or decomposition of any degree begins. 

Silage has been condemned by most horse feeders and justi- 
fiably so, for much of the data concerning its use> have been 
unfavorable, fatal results being commonly reported. Eecent 
feeding experiments, however, have demonstrated that silage 
may be safely fed to work horses and growing colts, if of best 
quality and limited to from ten to twenty pounds per day. 
Silage the least bit moldy or spoiled is dangerous for horses. 

WATER 

Water of good quality and ample, quantity is essential to the 
good health, comfort, and efficiency of horses at work. A thirsty 
horse does not make the most of his ration ; his digestive func- 
tions are impaired by the sense of thirst. Horses should be 
watered regularly, so they may be able to anticipate their oppor- 
tunities. Regular watering at frequent intervals will probably 
insure the horse drinking more of fresher water in the course of 
the dav than though allowed free access to water in the stall at 



THE FEEDING OF HORSES 243 

all times. The idea, more prevalent than one would believe, 
that a horse should be stinted in his water supply is incompre- 
hensible. If the horse has much liberty in this matter he will 
rarely drink to his own detriment. 

Watering when Warm. — It is dangerous to allow a fill of 
water when the horse is very warm, but better then than never, 
as is liable to be the case in many poorly managed stables. A 
moderate drink will refresh and benefit any horse at any time. 

Public Watering Troughs. — Indiscriminate patronage of 
public watering troughs in cities is fraught with the danger of 
glanders infection. A bucket, which could be filled direct from 
the inflow, and the horses watered from it, might well be made a 
part of the equipment of each work horse outfit. 

'Time to Water. — Theoretically, watering should precede 
feeding, in order not to flush on into the intestines the incom- 
pletely digested feed contained in the stomach, at the time the 
drink is taken. In practice, however, it is found that many 
horses will refuse to drink before eating, especially in the morn- 
ing, and will seek a drink soon after feeding, if allowed any free- 
dom in the matter. It is best not to' follow feeding immediately 
by a drink. 

A horse's drinking periods should be so arranged that he will 
not go to work immediately after a. full drink. The common 
practice of allowing horses to drink their fill upon coming into 
the stable from work and again v when going out is most conven- 
ient, but is not safe, although often followed with impunity. 

The one time at which a horse requires and appreciates a 
drink most, yet is offered it least frequently, is the last thing 
at night, after having consumed his full allowance of roughage 
and being ready to lie down to sleep. Every horse, having worked 
through the day, should be allowed an opportunity to drink at 
this time. 

SALT 

Salt is required in small quantities, frequently, and regu- 
larly. The irregular allowance of too much salt with its con- 
sequent drinking of an excess of water does not meet the require- 
ments in this respect. If given frequently or provided for the 



244 THE HORSE IN SERVICE 

horse to help himself, only limited amounts will be taken, A 
satisfactory method of furnishing salt is to season the grain feed. 
A lump of rock salt in the feed box does fairly well, although the 
quality of the salt is not good. One of the best patented de- 
vices is a container for a cylindrical cake of high-grade salt, so 
arranged that the cake rotates as the horse licks the bottom of 
it. This insures the salt being used off evenly, the cylinder last- 
ing until it is but a thin disc. The container screws into the 
wall of the stall at a convenient height. Loose salt should not be 
made too> easy of access. 

METHODS OF FEEDING 

Regularity of Feeding. — Horses are creatures of habit and 
should be so managed that their daily routine is regular in order 
that each event may be anticipated in turn. This ride applies 
to feeding with especial force, it being the most important event 
of the day. Regularity of feeding promotes digestion, assimi- 
lation, and peace of mind. All horses in a stable should be fed 
at once, with as little delay as possible in getting to each, in turn, 
after the operation has begun. In most large stables the drivers 
have nothing to do with the feeding, that matter being better 
attended to by one man, who feeds each horse impartially and in 
accordance with his individual requirements. 

Time of Feeding. — The daily ration is divided into three 
feeds given, when circumstances will permit, about six hours 
apart. City delivery service often necessitates much longer in- 
tervals between meals. Just a bit of roughage should be allowed 
in the morning, the bulk of it going with the evening feed. The 
division of grain is about equal for the three feeds, less being 
allowed at noon if the dinner hour is short. 

Omission of the noon feed is practiced by some employers 
of horses and with apparent good judgment. The horse's di- 
gestive system, unlike that of the ruminating cattle and sheep, 
is so arranged that he requires feed in small amounts, at com- 
paratively frequent intervals. There can be no argument of the 
fact that, under ideal or natural conditions, he should receive at 
least three feeds a day. But it is economically impossible to in- 



THE FEEDING OF HORSES 245 

sure, to all work horses, ideal conditions. Short noon hours, 
horses hot when noontime arrives, and compelled to stand in the 
sun and fight flies while eating, wasting much of their ration, 
and then to go directly to hard work after feeding — this is the 
experience of many work horses. The nose-bag or other feeding 
device which will prevent the waste of a large part of its con- 
tents, especially in fly time, has not yet been perfected. It is 
as injurious to feed a hot, tired horse as it is to water him when 
hot. Feed consumed under such conditions is not well digested 
and assimilated, even if it does no harm, and its nutritive value 
to the horse is, therefore, small. 

The danger of colic from putting a horse to work immedi- 
ately after eating is unquestionable, as most cases of indigestion 
in working horses occur between one and four o'clock in the 
afternoon. In view of all these facts, there is good reason to 
conclude that the noontime spent in rest after a moderate drink, 
and the amount of the noon feed added to the night allowance, 
would be more beneficial to the horse if it is impossible to allow 
him proper time and place in which to feed. 

The character and amount of the ration should be modified 
to meet each change in the work of the horses. Those well fed 
and working regularly are veiy susceptible to the so-called 
" Monday morning " disease, if laid off for a day or two. A 
short period of idleness calls for a material reduction of the con- 
centrates of the ration and an increase in the lighter constit- 
uents, as bran or succulence. Horses temporarily put out of 
business by storms or holidays should be exercised, in addition 
to having their ration cut down. Once a horse has shown, by 
previous attacks, that he is especially predisposed to trouble of 
this character, he demands the closest attention, yet if this be 
accorded him he may work as satisfactorily as any horse in the 
stable. 

Special preparation of the feed is of little advantage to the 
normal horse, under usual conditions. The crushing of oats at 
the ordinary mill is not considered worth while; although the 
installation of small mills, in stables which are already supplied 
with the electric current, may bring the cost of crushing down 
to a point where the end justifies the means. For old or over- 



246 THE HORSE IN SERVICE 

worked horses, the artificial mastication insures the more com- 
plete utilization of the feed. Crushed or rolled oats have a 
corrective effect on the bowels of horses prone to be washy, which 
would warrant their use in such cases. 

Cutting or chaffing hay or straw makes it possible to com- 
bine it with the concentrates of the ration to the mutual improve- 
ment of both. The roughage extends the concentrates, so that 
they will be more slowly eaten and more perfectly digested. The 
addition of the concentrates induces the horse to eat more of the 
roughage, especially if the latter is straw. 

Moistening hay or straw, especially if chaffed or dusty, im- 
proves its condition. 

Variety in the ration is most acceptable to the horse and is 
to be sought, but its introduction should not involve any sudden 
or radical change, especially if either corn or middlings be used. 

REVIEW 

1. Why should horse feeders, especially, be " artists " ? 

2. How is the feed used by the horse? 

3. What are the daily nutritive requirements of a horse? 

4. Of what three types of feed may the ration be composed, and what 

are the special requirements of the horse in regard to each? 

5. Why are oats considered the most desirable concentrate for horse 

feeding? 

6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of corn as a horse 

feed? 

7. To what extent may molasses be fed to advantage? 

8. Why is timothy hay especially in demand by horse feeders? 

9. Of what value is alfalfa to the horse feeder and how should it be 

fed? 

10. What is the importance of succulence for horses and what may he 

its source? 

11. At what times, in what quantities, under what conditions and where 

should horses be permitted to drink? 

12. Why should horses be fed at regular periods? 

13. Under what circumstances may it be advisable to eliminate the noon 

feed? 

14. What precautions should be observed in the feeding of work horses, 

temporarily idle? 

15. When should the grain be ground, the roughage cut, or the ration 

varied ? 



CHAPTER XV 

STABLES 

The character of the habitations in which horses are re- 
quired to live varies from the simplest kind of an enclosure, 
affording no protection whatever, to the most luxuriantly ap- 
pointed quarters, as those in which some gentlemen's show horses 
are stabled. As a rule, the more artificial the conditions under 
which horses are used, the more complete the system of stabling 
required. 

There are two general classes of stables, town and country, 
the principal features of location, design, construction, and man- 
agement of which are, necessarily, quite different. 

Location. — There can usually be very little option exercised 
in the selection of the site of the town stable, but in the country 
the situation of the horse's quarters should be given careful con- 
sideration. The horse stable may be distinct from or included 
within the farm barn; but in either case it should be built on 
high, well-drained ground, with a southern exposure, if prac- 
ticable. The benefits of the light and heat of the sun's rays are 
insured for a longer period in the day, and the temperature of 
the stable is maintained more uniform, if admitted through 
southern windows. If a double row of stalls, back to back, are 
to be provided for, an east and west exposure will be fairest to 
the occupants of both sides. 

The design and arrangement of stables should be made with 
a view to providing sufficient room to accommodate the requisite 
number of horses and vehicles to be housed, proper light, venti- 
lation and drainage, comfort and security of the horses, and con- 
venience of attendants and patrons. These being insured, the 
simpler the design the better. 

Construction. — Frame stables predominate in the country, 
and if well built are entirely satisfactory, so far as the essentials 
outlined above are concerned, with the exception of greater 
danger from fire. Town stables are more frequently built of 

247 



248 THE HORSE IN SERVICE 

brick, stone, concrete, terra-cotta block, or plaster. In the use 
of these materials for construction it should be borne in mind 
that a solid wall of masonry is cold and damp, and therefore 
sweats when the moist, warm air of the stable comes in contact 
with it. When horses are to stand next to outside walls they 
should be built with a hollow centre for a dead air space. Either 
concrete blocks, the hollow tile, terra cotta, or plaster have this 
advantage over the solid wall of stone or brick or the poured 
concrete construction. The plaster or stucco, either rough cast 
or smooth finished, on expanded metal lath, is a form of con- 
struction which has proved very satisfactory in a limited way 
and is comparatively inexpensive. 

Dimensions of a, stable are determined by the individual 
allowance for stalls, alleys, floor space, and other requirements. 

Stalls are of two sorts, (1) the loose box stall and (2) the 
straight, standing, or slip stall. Box stalls allow a horse more 
liberty, either standing or lying down, and freedom to roll, an 
opportunity very much appreciated by most horses. Every 
stable should have at least one, but on account of the additional 
room and extra care required they are not practicable for all 
horses in large stables. The idea of turning a horse " loose " to 
" run " in a box stall is unreasonable. There is no advantage 
in having them larger than twelve feet square except in the case 
of a maternity or hospital stall, where it is necessary to get about 
the horse readily and to accommodate a foal. The straight stall 
is the one in which the majority of horses are confined, and 
should be of sufficient length to protect the horse from being 
kicked back of the heel post, and wide enough to enable him to 
lie down in comfort, yet not to induce him to attempt to roll. 
At least eight feet from manger to heel post and five feet in 
width is necessary for that purpose, the size of the horse to 
govern. Horses show better in shorter stalls, and in sale and 
show stables safety is often sacrificed on this account. 

Stall partitions should be about eight feet high in front and 
five to six feet in the rear, heel posts carried to the ceiling, and 
should not be built up solid, but be open to allow a free circula- 
tion of air through the stalls. In a stall with solid walls the 
horse lying down is deprived of fresh air to such an extent as to 



STABLES 249 

almost smother him in some stables. Planks or panels should 
be horizontal, not upright, in order not to be split or shattered if 
kicked. This arrangement brings the impression of the shoe 
across the grain of the wood. Floors can be kept drier and be 
more thoroughly cleaned if the partition does not come quite to 
the floor (Fig. 130). 

Bales. — One of our most experienced American authori- 
ties * is an ardent advocate of the bale in place of the fixed par- 
tition to separate horses, claiming for it economy of space and 
more latitude and comfort for the horses, with equal safety. The 
bale consists of two planks or boards, ironed together, to make 
a width of three feet, suspended 18 inches from the floor by a 
hook and ring in the wall at the head of the stall and by a rope 
or chain at the rear. Four feet is a sufficient allowance for an 
ordinary sized horse between bales, and they will do well in even 
less. 

Stall Floors. — Stall floors may be of clay, plank, or pave- 
ment. In the selection of flooring material there are many ends 
to be considered. Well tamped clay is noiseless, affords a firm 
footing unless wet, and without question places the horse on the 
most natural tread. It does very well in country stables where 
the clay is available, straw is cheap, and manure is of value, with 
the horse out of the stable much of the time. It is especially well 
adapted for use in box stalls. However, it is not easily cleaned 
and requires frequent repairing to keep the surface even and 
free from holes and depressions. Plank floors do not tire a 
standing horse, are warm to lie upon, and are not slippery, but 
they are neither durable nor sanitary, being more or less pervious 
and absorbent. Paved floors have the advantage of durability 
and are most sanitary, being impervious and easily drained, but 
they are hard to stand upon, slippery, noisy, cold to lie upon, and 
generally undesirable from the horse's point of view. ISTohvifli- 
standing, they are well-nigh indispensable in large city stables, 
and a satisfactory compromise, in consideration of the horse's 
personal preference in the matter, is made by supplying a well- 
fitted rack. This is made of slats running lengthwise of the 

* Ware, " First Hand Bits of Stable Lore." 



250 THE HORSE IN SERVICE 

stall, fixed at such distance apart as to admit but not catch the 
narrow calks or to prevent the entrance of broad calks, depending 
upon the type of horse to be stalled, the entire rack to be readily 
taken out, permitting thorough cleaning of the floor beneath. 
These racks, of course, wear out, but are more easily replaced 
than a floor, and while the horse stands on wood the sanitary 
features of the paved floor are procured. Concrete, rough cast 
or corrugated, vitrified or cork brick, are the common paving 
materials. 

Concrete floors may be made comparatively dry and warm 
by insulating the top coat from the rough bottom with a layer 
of tar paper or two coats of tar paint. Cork brick has proven 
satisfactory in dairy stables but has not yet been much used 
under horses. 

Drainage. — The drainage of stalls may be by open or cov- 
ered drains. Common experience is in favor of the open drain, 
the covered drain becoming stopped up frequently in spite of 
gratings and traps to prevent such occurrences. Drains consist 
of either a central or two lateral troughs, running either from 
about half way to the front of the stall, or the centre of the box, 
to a main drain passing in the rear of the stalls. Two lateral 
drains at the sides of the stall interfere less with the horse stand- 
ing or getting up and down than does the central drain. The stall 
floors should incline slightly toward the drain but not enough 
to unbalance the standing position of the horse. Undrained 
stalls, in which absorbent litter is depended upon for the removal 
of the liquid manure, are most practicable for the average coun- 
try stable and can be kept sanitary provided an abundance of 
litter is used. The high cost of bedding materials and the 
objectionable features of accumulated manure, together with 
the available sewer connections and possibility of frequent flush- 
ing, render the drained stable much more desirable in the city. 

Litter for Bedding. — Bedding is used for several purposes : 
(1) To insure comfort to the horse, thereby inducing him to lie 
down and save his feet and legs as much as possible ; (2) to keep 
the horse clean and free from stable stain ; (3) to absorb and thus 
facilitate the removal of liquid manure ; (4) to dilute and thus 



STABLES 251 

improve the physical condition, of the manure for fertilizing 
purposes. 

Bedding materials consist of straws, sawdust, shavings, peat 
moss, and, in the country, corn stover and leaves. The durability 
of the straws is in the order of rye, wheat and oat, while their 
absorbing capacity is reversed. Their relative values, therefore, 
will depend upon whether or not they are to be used in drained 
stalls. If that is the case they will be valued in the order named, 
but with an abundance of straw, and value attached to the 
manure, they would have an inverted valuation in the undrained 
stable, where the absorption by the bedding is depended upon 
for the removal of the liquid manure. * The chaffy nature of oat 
straw would make it objectionable to use in drained stables. The 
market price is greatest for untangled rye straw, which is espe- 
cially demanded in high-class stables, where the appearance is 
much enhanced by "setting fair" the bedding; then tangled 
rye, wheat, and oat in the order named. 

Shavings and sawdust have the advantages of economy in 
most locations, a cleanly appearance in the stable, and to a cer- 
tain extent they counteract odors, but they are difficult to handle, 
rather cold to lie upon, and undesirable in the manure on account 
of their dearth of plant food. Sawdust holds better on the stall 
floor but it is not so easily removed from the horses' coats as are 
shavings. 

Peat moss is much more commonly used in England and 
Scotland than in America. It is imported by the shipload in 
large bales, chiefly from Holland and Germany, and is there- 
fore cheapest in the Eastern cities. It has the advantage of 
durability, will absorb about ten times its volume of water, 
while straw absorbs but three, prevents stable odor, affords a 
comfortable bed either to lie or to stand upon, and does not stain 
gray horses, a property which alone is responsible for its use in 
many large stables. Like shavings and sawdust, stalls thus 
bedded are somewhat difficult to muck out. Peat moss has some 
fertilizing value and is therefore not objectionable in the manure, 
as are shavings and sawdust. If available at a price of about $12 
per ton it will be found a most economical and satisfactory 
litter. 



252 THE HORSE IN SERVICE 

Corn stover must be either cut or shredded in order to be 
conveniently used for bedding. It is customary to feed a gen- 
erous allowance and permit what is not consumed to go under 
the horses for bedding. 

Feed boxes should be easily taken out in order that they may 
be frequently cleansed and kept sweet. Various schemes have 
been devised for the purpose of preventing too rapid bolting of 
feed and throwing it out. Aside from the patent slow feed- 
ing contrivances, a broad, flat-bottomed box which insures the 
feed being spread in a thin layer, or a few good-sized cobble- 
stones placed in the ordinary box will serve to prevent hogging, 
while a flange about the rim of the feed box will help retain the 
grain, although increasing the difficulty of removing what feed 
is left, in case it may be necessary to do so. 

Mangers for the roughage should not be placed higher than 
the level of the feed box and should be provided with either 
cross slats or some other means to prevent the hay being thrown 
out. They should be open at the bottom in order that they may 
be kept clean from dirt, chaff, and all trash. It is recommended 
by some that feeding be done from the floor, inasmuch as that 
is the natural position of the grazing horse. It has the advan- 
tage of cheapening construction and economizing stall space, as 
well as enhancing the security of the horse in the stable. It 
requires a careful allotment of hay, however, as what is not 
readily consumed will be wasted, and with those horses which 
have acquired the habit of pawing whatever is in front of them 
back under their hind feet it will prove a wasteful practice. 

Ties. — A horse should be tied securely in his stall for the 
protection of both himself and others in the stable, but the method 
of tying should be such as to enable him to rest comfortably, yet 
without danger of becoming either cast or entangled in the halter 
shank. Comfort requires that a horse be permitted to lay his 
head flat on the floor, yet much more length than this will enable 
him to get a foot over the halter. Both comfort and safety are 
met by attaching a weight to the end of the halter shank equiva- 
lent to the weight of the shank itself, allowing the shank to slip 
through either a ring or a hole in the manger without being tied. 
The weight keeps the halter shank taut to the extent of not being 



STABLES 253 

slack in whatever position the horse's head may be without ex- 
erting any drag on the head. Another method is to tie a short 
halter shank to a ring which travels a perpendicular rod, in 
much the same manner as some cow ties are made. The length 
and adjustment of both rod and halter shank should be such as 
to allow the horse ample freedom, either standing or lying down, 
yet never permitting any slack in the strap. Halter shanks, 
whether rope, strap, or chain, should be attached to the head 
stall by a snap to insure certain and prompt release of the horse 
in case of emergency. 

Passageways both behind and between stalls should be of 
ample width, and if paved should be roughed in some manner 
to prevent slipping. A smoothly finished concrete or asphalt 
pavement may be made safe by a thin coating of sharp sand re- 
plenished daily, or, better yet, the concrete may be corrugated or 
rough surfaced, even to the extent of a layer of fine crushed stone 
to give a foothold. This last, however, is more difficult to sweep 
and clean. If bricks are used they should be laid on an angle 
and be so bevelled and pointed as to afford a catch for the shoe. 

Doors should be so located as to be most convenient yet least 
productive of drafts in the stable. Single doors should not be 
less than four feet in width and double doors eight feet. The 
usual height is eight feet. Rolling doors are preferable to hinged 
doors, especially in the interior of the stable as on box stalls, for 
the reason that they are always out of the way, while a partially 
open hinged door may project into a passage in such a way as to 
seriously injure a horse. 

Windows should be ample in size and number to provide 
requisite light and ventilation. They should be placed high 
enough over the horses' heads to protect their eyes from the direct 
light of the sun. In the simpler systems of ventilation, the 
windows serve for inlets, and should for that purpose be so con- 
structed as to drop inward from the top, thus directing the air 
toward the ceiling where it becomes diffused and gradually 
settles to the floor of the stable. The sides of the windows should 
be protected by fenders, which prevent, side and downward drafts. 
The opening should be regulated in accordance with the velocity 



254 THE HORSE IN SERVICE 

of the wind. Outlets are usually provided at the ridge Dole, 
by direct flues from below or by an open ceiling. 

The King system of ventilation is to be recommended when- 
ever its installation is practicable. It is made up of two kinds of 
flues: (1) Those for intake of fresh air, and (2) those for the 
outtake of foul air. The intake flues start at a point two feet or 
more above the ground outside and extend to the inside near the 
ceiling. The outtake flues start near the floor of the barn and ex- 
tend above the highest point of the roof. 

Fresh Air Requirements. — The fresh air and cubic space 
requirements per horse should be considered in the construction 
of stables and the provision of windows. It has been estimated 
that a horse of average size requires approximately 15,000 cubic 
feet of fresh air per hour, and this is the ideal aimed at in the 
English Army. Col. Fred Smith in his book on Veterinary Hy- 
giene describes a simple method of arriving at the horse's fresh air 
requirements and of determining whether or not these require- 
ments are being met. He bases his conclusions on the fact that 
the horse inspires about 100 cubic feet of air per hour while in 
the stable, and his expirations completely vitiate air, to the ex- 
tent that it would not sustain the life of a mouse, at the rate of 
twenty-five cubic feet per hour. This air requires a dilution of 
150 times in order not to be injurious when rebreathed as it 
would be in the ordinary stable. De Chaumont's test makes it 
very simple to detect an injurious amount of respiratory impurity 
in the air. By actual analysis it has been determined that the 
sense of smell upon first entering the stable from the outside may 
be relied upon, not only to detect but to gauge the amount of res- 
piratory impurities present, An amount up to .2 per thousand 
may be present without being perceptible; .4 per thousand gives 
to the air a smell suggested by the term " rather close " ; .67 per 
thousand "close"; .9 per thousand "very close — offensive." 
Therefore, it is concluded that sufficient vitiation to be detected 
by smell renders the air unfit to be breathed and .2 per thousand 
has been taken as a standard of requirement. By the equation 

Amount of carbonic acid exhaled per hour ( Fre9 £. a j r required, 15,000 

— — ; — — ; — ; f- m = < cubic feet per hour is de- 

The permissible organic impurities ( termined to be necessary. 



STABLES 



255 



The cubic air space of the stable should be ample to insure 
to each horse the requisite 15,000 cubic feet per hour without 
such frequent changes of the volume of air as to cause drafts or 
a continuous fluctuation of temperature. Sixteen hundred cubic 
feet per head, requiring a complete change in the volume of air 
nine and one-half times per hour in order to furnish 15,000 
cubic feet per head per hour, is the ideal aimed at in the design- 
ing of the English Army stable. Changing the air so frequently 
keeps the stable decidedly fresh and renders a horse more fit for 
service than for show. About one cubic foot per pound of 
weight is the usual rule in figuring the air space of the stable. 
It should be remembered, however, that the nearer the tempera- 
ture and the atmosphere of the stable approaches that outside, 
the more capable the horse is of hard and fast work. 

The size of the inlet or window necessary to admit the re- 
quired amount of air is computed from the following table : 

Data for Calculating Size of Inlet. 



Description of wind 


Mean velocity in miles 
per hour 


Size of inlet to admit 

15,000 cubic feet of 

air per hour 


Calm 


3 

8 

13 

23 

28 


Sq.ft. 
1 


Light air 


04 


Light breeze 


02 


Moderate breeze 

Fresh breeze 


0.12 
12 







Rule for Computing. — Multiply the number of animals to be 
supplied with air by the size of the inlet corresponding to the 
estimated velocity of the wind. This divided by the number of 
ventilators on the inlet side of the building gives the size in 
square feet which each ventilator or window should be opened. 
Outlets should have the same opening in order to facilitate the 
movement of the air. 

Fresh Air for Horses. — On account of the fact that most 
horses work regularly in the open air, the principles of ventila- 
tion are violated with greater impunity in their case than in the 



256 



THE HORSE IN SERVICE 



case of dairy cows. Existence in some city subway stables would 
be impossible were it not that the horses spend most of their time 
outside. The care of the stable and stable drainage are both 
factors concerned with fresh air, and properly done they remove 
an important source of contamination of the atmosphere. 

The interior of the stable should be made as free from 
projections and possible sources of injury to the horses as may 
be. All hardware should be countersunk ; harness hooks put 




Fig. 129. — A model work horse stable, showing the main alley-way and general interior 

arrangement. 



above the level of the horses' heads ; dung forks, shovels, and all 
other implements put safely away; manure pits and trap doors 
thoroughly protected. 

Wagon and harness rooms should be completely shut off 
from the stable and so situated as to be convenient for the har- 
nessing and putting-to of the horses. In fact, the whole stable 
arrangement should be such that the turning out of the equipage, 
whether for business or pleasure, may be accomplished by pro- 
gressive steps, with no retracing, from the grooming floor to 
the outside door. 



STABLES 



257 




Fig. 130. — A model work horse stable, showing width of stalls, corrugated concrete floors, 
wooden racks in stall floors, width of alleys, drains and ventilating flues. 




Fig. 131. — A model work horse Stable, showing length of stalls, open partitions and 
front doors, the latter being a convenience for caretakers and obviating the danger of back- 
ing heavv horses on slippery floors. 

17 



258 



THE HORSE IN SERVICE 



The assignment of stalls should be made with a view of pro- 
moting congenial relationships between neighboring horses and 
avoiding the consequences of incompatibility. Furthermore, 




Fig. 132. — Plan and specifications for a small work horse stable with open front stalls. 




Fig. 133. — Floor plan and specifications for a convenient, comfortable, and sanitary- 
city stable. 

in large work stables, it is well to stable together those horses 
which work during the same hours. This enables them to rest 
better, with less disturbance while in the stable (Figs. 129, 130, 
131, 132, and 133). 



STABLES 259 

STABLE MANAGEMENT 

Grooming is essential to the health and general appearance 
of the horse. Systems of grooming vary from the simple use of 
the bare hand and arm, as practiced by the Indians, to the most 
thorough and vigorous employment of a variety of utensils. 
The more highly bred, finer coated horses require more delicate 
treatment than the heavier coated and phlegmatic work horses. 
Utensils in common use are the metal curry-comb, bristle body- 
brush, corn brush, rub rag, sponge, wisp, and hoof pick. All 
grooming should be thorough but gentle, with due consideration 
for the sensibilities of the horse. Dandruff consists of shed 
particles of skin, waste products of metabolism, fat, and some 
salt. It complete removal is the primary object of grooming. 

The first stej) usually is the use of the curry-comb the reverse 
way of the hair for the removal of dandruff and dry stable dirt, 
if there be any. The curry-comb should never be used about the 
head nor below the knees and hocks, should be dull (new ones 
preferably filed dull), and used with the greatest care. It is 
not permitted in many well-regulated stables, the wisp of straw 
and the com brush accomplishing the same purpose. The bristle 
or body brush is used the right way of the hair to remove what 
the curry-comb or wisp has brought to the surface, also to brush 
the head and legs. The corn brush is used chiefly on mane and 
tail, although the latter may require additional picking by hand. 
The use of a comb, except on docked tails and pulled manes, is 
not desirable. The rub rag, used the right way of the hair unless 
in cooling out hot horses, puts the final finish on the coat. 

In show and race horses the nibbing may amount to a most 
vigorous massage. The eyes, muzzle, and region under the tail 
should be sponged off ; also the feet, after having been picked out. 
White points may be washed if necessary. Motor brushes and 
vacuum cleaners have not as yet been very generally adopted, 
even in large stables (Fig. 134). 

Washing. — The frequent application of soap and water de 
stroys the lustre of a horse's coat, beside rendering him espe- 
cially liable to chill if not thoroughly dried out. Except in the 



260 



THE HORSE IN SERVICE 



case of pure white horses or in hot weather, washing is not to be 
commended, but is too frequently resorted to by indolent care- 
takers. There is really nothing gained in either time or labor, 
as it is as difficult to properly wash and dry a horse as to groom 
him completely. 




Fig. 134. — A vacuum grooming machine in operation. A vacuum is maintained in 
the pipes which draws the dirt out of the hair and conveys it to a receptacle where it collects 
and can be removed. 



Care of the Legs. — Horses of a lymphatic temperament, as 
most business horses are, working continuously in all kinds of 
going, require especial attention to keep them right in their legs. 
A proper balance between feed and exercise is the first consid- 
eration in keeping legs right. Then they must be thoroughly 
groomed, and dry grooming keeps the skin much less predis- 



STABLES 261 

posed to disorder. So does the presence of hair, the arrangement 
of which, about the fetlock, naturally turns the water off the leg 
instead of limning it down into the heel where the skin is most 
delicate. The most intelligent and experienced managers of 
city work horse stables, where the clipping of legs in the winter 
has been tried out, are opposed to it on this basis. Once the skin 
becomes affected, it may be necessary to remove the hair in order 
to reach the seat of the trouble. The old country plan of rub- 
bing out legs with considerable feather is the best means of dry 
grooming them. Too much rough brushing may be irritating. 

Horses' legs should not be washed unless thoroughly dried. 
If necessary to put away wet, the legs may be loosely bandaged 
to prevent chilling, until they have dried out. The fetlocks, 
pasterns, and heels may be protected against the snow r brine 
common on city streets, and other irritating influences, by smear- 
ing them thoroughly with a coating of linseed oil before leaving 
the stable. 

Care of the Feet. — The importance of having a horse " good 
on the ground," as the saying goes, is generally appreciated ; but 
the structure of the foot itself, as a most important feature of 
conformation, is not always well understood. Furthermore, the 
necessity for keeping horses shod, which, in itself, is an injuri- 
ous practice at best, renders consideration of the principles in- 
volved especially essential. 

Shoeing. — The foot, is not an immobile block to which a shoe 
can be nailed, but is capable of motion, interference with which 
will defeat the purpose which the foot is most ingeniously de- 
signed to serve, namely, the relief of concussion. Compare the 
unshod foot of the colt with the foot of the horse that has been 
shod in the ordinary way, for a number of years, and the detri- 
mental influence of shoeing will be apparent. Notice the smooth, 
worn foot surface of the shoe that has been properly applied and 
the extent to which the foot expands and contracts, laterally, will 
be indicated. 

Physiological Movements of the Foot. — This is what happens 
when the foot comes to the ground at the conclusion of the stride : 
As the weight drops on the foot the fetlock and pastern settle 
downward and backward, the internal structures of the foot are 



262 THE HORSE IN SERVICE 

borne down upon, and in the normal unshod foot further de- 
pression is opposed by the contact of the frog with the ground. 
The structures compressed between the pedal or coffin bone 
above and the unyielding ground or roadway beneath are elastic, 
and yield in the line of least resistance, which is laterally. 
This sidewise expansion of the internal structures of the foot 
presses the bars and lateral cartilages outward, and with them 
the wall at the quarter, thus increasing the transverse diameter 
of the foot from one-fiftieth to one-twelfth of an inch. As this 
expansion is most marked in the back half of the foot, there is 
a corresponding narrowing of the hoof head in front. 

Interference, by shoeing or otherwise, with this lateral ex- 
pansion of the quarters, not only causes the full force of the con- 
cussion incident to the contact of the foot with the ground to be 
felt, but induces a cramped, stilty stride, as a result of the 
horse's effort to come down easily and thus spare himself the 
pain of concussion. It is a condition analogous to that of a man 
with a tight, unyielding shoe which pinches at every step as the 
weight is borne on it. 

The destruction of the elasticity of the lateral cartilages by 
ossification, in the formation of side bones, has the same effect, 
marked both in the stride and in the altered form of the foot, 
the quarters becoming more narrow and straight. 

Proper shoeing consists, first, in so dressing the foot that the 
removal of surplus horn does not destroy the balance of the foot, 
but leaves it with its axis unbroken either up or down, in or out, 
thus insuring an even distribution of weight and wear on the 
joints above (Figs. 135, 136 and 137). Only such horn should 
be removed from the sole or frog as is loose; the bars, natural 
braces to prevent contraction, should not be cut through, the 
heels " opened up," nor the sole concaved. The shoe must be 
made to fit the foot, not the converse, its upper surface being 
perfectly level and smooth to favor the sliding of the wall in 
the outward expansion of the quarters, not bevelled to turn the 
heels out ; the nails should be placed far enough forward to leave 
the back of the foot free to expand on the branches of the shoe. 
Hot fitting, properly done, insures a better fit than is possible 
when the shoe is fitted cold, and is not injurious to the horn ; in 



STABLES 



263 



fact, there is some advantage in searing over the ends of the horn 
tubules. 

Common styles of shoes are the plain open shoe, the bar 
shoe, designed for the purpose of giving frog pressure or pro- 
tecting weak heels, tips, and pads. 

Hoof Dressings. — The boot blacking idea applied to the 
feet of horses is inexcusable. No dressing is so attractive as the 
natural horn, perfectly clean. If it is desired to prevent the 
drying out of the horn after the removal of the natural varnish 
in the operation of shoeing, neatsfoot oil without the customary 
lampblack does not disguise but rather improves the natural 
appearance of the foot. 




Fig. 135. — An untrimmed 
hoof with an excess of horn 
(a) at the toe which breaks 
the foot axis backward. 



Fig. 136. — An untrimmed 
hoof with an excess of horn 
(b) at the heel, which breaks 
the foot axis forward. 



Fig. 137. — Hoof dressed 
and foot axis straightened 
by removing excess of horn 
below dotted lines in the 
two preceding illustrations. 



Clipping. — The removal of the hair consists of trimming and 
incomplete or complete clipping. 

Trimming is the removal of the hair from certain parts only, 
as the foretop, fetlocks, or ears. Trimming is largely a matter 
of fashion. 

Fashion in Horses. — The rule of fashion is not confined to 
the boxes about the arena of the horse show ; it prevails also in 
the loose boxes adjoining the paddock. In compliance with the 
dictates of fashion heavy harness and walk-trot-canter saddle 
horses are docked, their manes pulled, but foretops left. By the 
same authority, light harness and gaited saddle horses carry full 
manes and tails; as a rule, while the former have foretops re- 
moved, the latter have their tails artificially set and have been 
known to wear " wigs." Hunters and polo ponies must submit 



264 THE HORSE IN SERVICE 

to a hogging of manes and foretops, while the tails nowadays 
are suffered to remain full length, except for a, square blocking 
of the end, perhaps, while the bulk of the tail is reduced by pluck- 
ing the hair from the sides of the dock. 

Drafters are docked but the hair is not trimmed. In the 
show ring their manes are rolled and plaited. The docked tail 
of the harness and saddle horse, may be trimmed short like a 
brush, or have the hair parted, breaking straight down when the 
tail is set, with the ends evenly trimmed off, or the hair may be 
left untrimmed, as in the case of the so-called French tails ; the 
second method is most popular in this country. 

All " light-legged " horses have the feather and fetlocks re- 
moved to give a trim appearance, while some feather at least is 
desirable on the draft horse, to augment the appearance of bane, 
and even mild blisters may be resorted to- for the purpose of 
stimulating its growth. 

Business horses may have foretops trimmed and tails blocked 
as a matter of convenience. In stables of KM) horses, for in- 
stance, the additional time required in doing up and brushing 
out a long tail in bad weather is a considerable item in labor. 

Partial clipping consists in removing the hair from the legs 
but not from the body, as is frequently done with business and 
road horses ; or the reverse, as is customary with hunters, the hair 
being left on the legs for the protection it affords in the hunting 
field. 

Complete clipping is justifiable and even necessary under 
certain conditions. The horse naturally grows a heavy protec- 
tive coat of hair in the fall which would be of the greatest service 
to him under his original natural conditions. However, the 
artificial conditions under which the average horse lives and 
works render an excessively heavy coat objectionable. The horse 
thus protected sweats unduly at either ordinary or fast work, is 
generally enervated and his system is relaxed, thereby rendering 
him especially liable to contract colds. Furthermore, it is diffi- 
cult and sometimes impossible to completely dry him after a 
day's work. The removal of such a coat early enough in the fall 
so that a light, protective coat may yet be grown before severe 



STABLES 265 

weather is encountered, with care that artificial protection is 
always afforded, will render the horse more fit for work. Unless 
a horse is afflicted Avith an exceptionally heavy coat, and cer- 
tainly not unless he will be provided with ample clothing at all 
times when not at work, he should not be clipped. 

Clipping is also resorted to in the spring after the shedding 
process has begun, but before the new coat has started to grow 
out, to obviate the disagreeable features of the shedding coat, 
especially in the case of gray horses. Here, too, the substitu- 
tion of blankets for the natural coat is required. 

Clothing consists of blankets of various weights, hoods, and 
bandages. It serves to protect from cold, flies, and dirt. Show 
horses are heavily blanketed and covered for the purpose of 
keeping down their coats, although some fitters of draft horses 
secure the highest bloom without blankets. All blankets should 
fit comfortably, have their girths adjusted, and be put on in such 
a way as to leave the hair smooth beneath them. 

The blanket is usually folded once each way, the cross fold 
being made first, then caught up so as to double lengthwise. The 
blanket should be taken up in such manner as to unfold in the 
reverse order from that in which it was folded up. If this is 
done the longitudinal fold will open as it is thrown over the horse, 
and if carried well over his withers, with the open edges of the 
transverse fold forward, the last step in the unfolding will bring 
the blanket over the horse's loins and croup, drawing it in the 
direction of the hair. To remove, it should be folded transversely 
backward, then caught up where the lengthwise fold is to come 
and drawn off backwards in such- a manner as to leave the hair 
smooth. 

Hoods are used in conjunction with blankets on race and show 
horses to cover all but the eyes, ears, and muzzle. It is impor- 
tant that they should fit well about the eyes and ears. 

Bandages are used either to protect the extremities from chill, 
in which case they are rolled loosely, or to exert gentle pressure 
in order to prevent filling of the subcutaneous tissue, commonly 
termed stocking. They are applied by starting at the middle of 
the canon, rolling down to or including the fetlock joint, then 



266 THE HORSE IN SERVICE 

up to the knee, and back to the starting point. By rolling down- 
ward first better support for the bandage is secured. 

Stable Vices. — Wind sucking, as indicated by the name, is a 
practice in which the horse assumes a position with the upper 
teeth bearing on the manger or other projecting object and pro- 
ceeds to suck wind into his stomach, accompanied by a long 
grunting sound. Wind suckers are difficult to keep in condition. 

Crib-biting is a vice in which the edge of the manger or any 
other projection is grasped between the teeth and gradually bitten 
away. The habit results in a characteristic bevelling of the front 
margins of the teeth, although the wear of a rounded iron feed 
box may produce much the same appearance of the teeth. Wind 
sucking and crib-biting are usually associated, although a horse 
may be subject to one and not the other. The habit is not con- 
fined to the stable, but may be practiced whenever the opportunity 
offers. Either a smoothly finished stall in which there is nothing 
to offer a toothhold or the use of a strap fitted closely enough 
about the throat to compress the larynx when pressure is borne 
on the teeth but causing the horse no discomfort when not indulg- 
ing in the vice, are the usual means of preventing, although not 
curing, the habit, 

Weaving is a rhythmical shifting of the weight of the fore- 
hand from one forefoot to the other in much the same manner 
that is displayed by a bear in captivity. As a rule, enforced 
idleness is an active cause. It has been suggested that horses 
tied with chain halter shanks have acquired this, habit in order 
to rattle the chains. 

Kicking. — Horses kick from various motives, such as mali- 
ciousness, good feeling, or wilful attempts to injure either com- 
panions or attendants. A great many horses which never mani- 
fest an inclination to kick elsewhere acquire the habit of kicking 
in the stable. Mares are more frequently kickers than geldings. 
Some horses kick only at feeding time, thus giving vent to their 
impatience. A true stable kicker appears to have no other ex- 
cuse than the satisfaction of kicking; for such horses a swing- 
ing bale partition is recommended. It offers little resistance to 
the kick and for that reason seems to destroy the desire. Either 



STABLES 267 

hobbling the two bind feet or even shackling one to a weight is 
sometimes resorted to, but such practices arc attended with more 
serious danger than the original offence. 

Some horses kick only in the dark, and the presence of a light 
in the stable will stop them. Some are provoked to kick by an 
especially uncongenial companion in the next stall. Finally, 
horses perfectly well behaved in the stable under ordinary cir- 
cumstances kick from sheer spirit and energy when confined for 
an unusually long period. 

Tail Rubbing. — The presence of animal parasites or neglect 
of the region under the tail, which may become foul, are usually 
the causes of the first offence at tail rubbing. Once acquired, 
how r ever, the practice will be persisted in, even after the correc- 
tion of the conditions which originally induced it. If thorough 
grooming will not stop it, the horse may have to be put into a 
specially constructed loose box, provided either with a fender 
arranged at such a level that the horse can neither rub his tail 
against it nor touch any other part of the stall, or, better yet, a 
bevelled wall to about the height of the horse, giving it an upward 
and outward slope from the floor so that the horse, with his heel 
against the wall, cannot reach it to rub, at the height of his tail. 
Shields and bandages may be employed, but they are liable to 
injure the hair of the tail. 

Halter Pulling. — Confirmed halter pullers are best secured 
by ropes or chains snapped across behind them. The habit may 
be broken in the earlier stages by a slip noose about the flank, 
the rope being carried forward between the front legs, through 
the halter ring, and then fastened securely. After pulling back 
and tightening the noose about the flank the horse will usually 
take great care to keep the rope slack. 

Bad Habits. — Horses are most likely to fall into bad habits 
from want of something else to do. A regular daily routine, 
therefore, of either moderate exercise or work, and a ration not 
too stimulating, are the best safeguards against their acquisition. 
Furthermore, much can be done to make the stable life of a 
horse congenial by so arranging the occupants as to promote good 
fellowship and avoid incompatibility among them. 



268 THE HORSE IN SERVICE 

REVIEW 

1. What should well-arranged stables provide? 

2. What determines the dimensions of a stable? 

3. Give specifications for a straight stall. 

4. How large should a box stall be and why? 

5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of paved stall floors? 

and how may the disadvantages be partially overcome? 

6. What purposes does bedding serve? Name the bedding materials in 

common use and the relative merits of each. 

7. What should govern the number, size, and placing of the windows? 

8. What are the fresh air requirements of the average horse and what 

cubic space in the stable is necessary to meet them? 

9. What consideration should be given to the assignment of stalls in 

the stabling of horses? 

10. What special care do the legs of horses require? 

11. Of what does proper shoeing consist ? 

12. Discuss the advisability of clipping horses. 

13. How does fashion govern the trimming of horses? 

14. To what extent do horses require clothing? 

15. To what are most bad habits, which horses acquire in the stable, due? 



CHAPTER XVI 

EQUITATION 

Horsemanship involves the mastery of mind over matter in 
a way, but the control of the matter is accomplished, indirectly, 
by the mastery of a superior over an inferior intellect. A horse's 
usefulness is in proportion to the completeness of his subjuga- 
tion, and the more we know of his mental capacity the more 
completely may we accomplish his subjugation. 

Control of the Horse. — There is a sentimental opposition to 
a recital of the horse's mental limitations which must be over- 
come, and these limitations appreciated, if the most satisfactory 
service is to be had from him. For instance, it has been alleged 
that the horse is both a fool and a coward, and while these un- 
complimentary terms may arouse the ire of horse lovers, and 
apparently justly so, it is the actual possession of these two 
traits, perhaps more moderately called credulity and depend- 
ence, which makes it possible to use horses, at all, with safety and 
satisfaction. Our whole system of breaking, schooling, and 
driving is fundamentally deceptive. We aim to give the horse an 
exalted notion of those of his powers which are useful to us and 
at the same time create the idea that certain others, which might 
prove detrimental to our purpose, are hardly worthy of the 
horse's consideration. 

The all too common notion that the primary essential in riding 
or driving is to be able to " hold him " leads one wide of the mark 
in the rudiments of real horsemanship. Such misconception of 
facts is responsible for many of the disasters in which runaway 
horses are conspicuous. Most convincing proof of the absurdity 
of such an idea is the faultless performance which a pair of 
horses may put up in a class for ladies to drive, while the same 
pair, under identical conditions, had proved unmanageable for 
some heavy-handed, strong-armed man driver in a preceding 
class. Control, or at least the only system which renders horses 
serviceably safe, is of the mental, not muscular activities of the 

269 



270 THE HORSE IN SERVICE 

horse; therefore, the proper method is by suggestion, rather 
than by force. The execution of whatever act has its origin, so 
far as the horse is concerned, in his brain, not his brawn ; so- that 
is the logical headquarters through which to transmit instruc- 
tions. If the orders, emanating from this centre, for execution 
on the horse's own initiative, should happen to conflict with the 
physical efforts of the rider or driver, there is liable to be a 
rebellion in favor of the horse, who regards his own motive as 
taking precedence. On the other hand, by suggesting to the 
extent of bringing the horse to be of the same mind as the driver, 
there can be no conflict of orders, and most harmonious response 
mi the part of the horse results. 

Compare the horse which has been educated and driven by 
the strong arm method, which requires a flogging to makediim go, 
a man's weight to stop him, and two hands to pull him round a 
corner, with the possibility that he may conceive and carry out, 
at any time, some fool notion which it is beyond the physical 
power of man to check, with the thoroughly schooled horse re- 
sponding to the light yet firm and strongly suggestive hand of 
the master reinsman, who is able to stop, back, start, and drive 
any place, without a word or even a perceptible twist of the wrist. 

Transmitting the Irnpulse to Act. — Now that the principle 
has been exposed, the system may be outlined. It may be sum- 
marized in a consideration of hands and mouths. These are the 
two essential factors in the system of control, serving alternately 
as transmitters and receivers. By means of the former, either 
the instructions or demands in the mind of the driver are con- 
veyed, by the medium of the reins, to the sensitive structures 
constituting the mouth of the horse ; to be forwarded after being 
received through the sensory nerve-trunks to the brain of the 
horse; thence the motor nerves convey the authorized instruc- 
tions, as it Avere, to the proper parts for execution. What 
is here described at length and in detail is accomplished in a 
flash, but it is well to follow the actual transmission of an im- 
pulse in order to appreciate good horsemanship. 

If we are to realize the most prompt and delicate response, 
the horse must be taken and kept well in hand, so that, telegraph- 
ically speaking, the line of transmission from hand to mouth 



EQUITATION 271 

may be instantly called into requisition without waiting to get 
the wires up and connections made. Driving with a careless rein 
or continually jabbing not only lets the driver but the horse 
off his guard, and both must be called to attention by taking in 
hand, before communication can be established. Delays of even 
this long may be disastrous. 

Hands of the right sort are capable of such delicate manipu- 
lation as to constantly feel and be felt by the mouth, without 
maintaining a drag, which destroys all sensibility in both. Such 
hands convey to the mouth graduated pressure, from the lightest 
touch to the most compelling pull if occasion demands, and all 
with a firmness that is convincing. 

Relation of Hands 1 and Mouth. — Mouths are the product of 
hands, therefore reciprocal in every respect. The heavy, rough 
hand is productive of a hard, unresponsive mouth and destruc- 
tion of any other kind ; while the light, impressionable hand can 
be» relied upon to create or preserve a most sensitive mouth. There 
are features of this- relationship between hands and mouths which 
can neither be described nor prescribed. They are best learned 
by contact, the one with the other ; only one who has experienced 
the intimacy of such a fine system of communication has any 
conception of all that it means. With many the possession of 
good hands is intuitive; they can neither tell why or how they 
do as they do; others are heavy handed in spite of themselves, 
and are fully conscious of their offence and its attendant bad 
result. Of course, practice has much to do with this ; one accus- 
tomed to driving trotters will find himself in trouble with the 
lighter mouth- and different bitting arrangement of the actor ; 
while he who has had his schooling with the latter class of horses 
may be incapable of taking a strong enough hold to steady and 
support the horse at speed. 

The bit is the instrument by means of which communication 
between the hands of the driver and the mouth of the horse is car- 
ried on. An impulse arising in the mind of the driver is repre- 
sented in a manipulation of the reins, so as to bring the pressure 
of the bit on the structures of the mouth with which it is in 
contact in such a manner as to suggest a corresponding notion 
in the mind of the horse, which, if he be well schooled, he imme- 



272 THE HORSE IN SERVICE 

diately executes. In the reverse order the horse may conceive 
the idea of taking some steps on his own initiative, the premedi- 
tation of which will be felt by the driver, and if not in order 
he flashes back counter instructions. This is the advantage of 
keeping the horse always in hand. 

Intelligent use of the bit requires some knowledge of the 



Fig. 138. — Tongue held back to show the bars (a) of the mouth upon which the bit bears. 

structures of the mouth involved and the methods by which the 
bit operates. 

Following; are the structures witJi which the bit is more or 
less in contact, the extent and nature of their importance depend- 
ing upon the style of the bit : 

1. The bars of the mouth, that region of the lower jaw be- 
tween the incisor and molar teeth (Fig. 138). 

2. The tongue. 

3. Angles of the lips. 



EQUITATION 273 

4. The skin of the groove on the under surface of the lower 
jaw just in front of the union of its branches. 

5. The lower premolar teeth, in some instances. 
Classification of Bits. — Bits may be classified as snaffle, 

curb, and special. Snaffle bits consist of a straight or jointed 
bar, in which the principle involved is a direct pull on the 
mouth. The jointed snaffle (Fig. 139) is more severe, as it puts 
the pressure chiefly on the bars of the mouth, while the plain 
snaffle bears equally on the tongue, which has a cushioning 
effect. 

The four- ring snaffle (Fig. 140) is doubly severe on account 
of the rings at the ends of the cheek pieces being drawn into the 
mouth. 

Curb bits consist of a plain or port bar furnished with a 
cheek lever or shank at each end, in place of snaffle rings, at the 





Fig. 139.— The jointed Fig. 140. — The four-ring 

snaffle bit. snaffle bit. 

upper ends of which are attached the chain or strap which bears 
in the groove under the lower jaw, while near the lower ex- 
tremity of the shank the reins are attached. The length of the 
shank is usually one-third above the mouth-piece and two-thirds 
Ik 'low. The principle involved with the curb is one of leverage, 
the restraint of the upper arm of the shank by the curb chain 
or strap constituting the fulcrum, the power being applied on 
the lower arm of the shank, the position of the attachment of 
the reins determining the leverage, while the weight is the mouth- 
piece of the bit borne by the bars and tongue. The lower the loop 
into which the reins are buckled, the stronger the leverage. The 
possible attachments of reins are the plain cheek, the half cheek, 
the first or second loop. The bearing of the curb chain is in- 
tended to be sufficient only to establish the leverage of the shank 
by holding its upper extremities stationary and establishing a 
fulcrum. The severity of the bit may be increased, however, by 
18 



274 



THE HORSE IN SERVICE 



shortening the chain or strap or roughing the chain by twisting 
its links. The action of the curb bit is also made more severe by 
the U-shaped mouth-piece (Tig. 141) which provides a. port, into 
which the tongue passes when the bit is in operation, thus throw- 
ing all the pressure upon the bars of the mouth. Without the 
port in the bit, the pressure is cushioned on the tongue before 
being borne by the bars. 

The plain bit is usually corrugated on one. side, if of the 
reversible Liverpool pattern, which makes it a little more severe 
than if the smooth side is used. 

There are four standard styles of curb bits : The Liverpool, 
the elbow, the Buxton, and the Pelham. The Liverpool (Fig. 
142) has a straight shank. The elbow (Fig. 143) has an angle 





Fig. 141.— Port of curb bit. 



Fig. 142.— The 
Liverpool bit. 



in the shank to prevent the horse from catching it in his lips and 
preventing the operation of the bit, The Buxton (Fig. 144) 
has a long S-shaped shank serving the same purpose as the 
elbow, the lower extremities being united by a cross-bar to pre- 
vent their becoming caught in parts of the harness. The Pelham 
(Fig. 145) is the style of bit commonly used in riding bridles. 

The special class of bits includes all those designed to meet 
extraordinary requirements, and they are too numerous to men- 
tion. The majority of them are a modification or corruption of 
the snaffle type, causing such distortion of the horse's mouth as 
to make any hold of the bit impossible. Many are ruinous to 
a good mouth and aggravating to a bad one. 

The Bitless Bridle. — There has recently been put on the 
market a bitless bridle, in which a metal nose band is equipped 



EQUITATION 



275 



with rings through which pass the ends of a flexible chin strap 
into which the reins are buckled. The idea is an old one, sim- 
ilar bridles having long been in common use in Southern Europe. 
For some horses with spoiled mouths this bridle might give good 
sendee, but with it the nicer responsiveness of a good mouth to 
light hands is impossible. 

The proper fit and adjustment of a bit are as essential to the 
preservation of a good mouth as is the type of the bit itself. It 
should just hang easily in the mouth, wide enough not to pinch 
the cheeks and low enough neither to stretch the angles of the 
mouth nor to draw the cheeks in against the teeth. Curb bits 
should be lower in the mouth, as a rule, than the snaffle, some 






Fig. 143. 
elbow bit. 



Fig. 144.— The 
Buxton bit. 



Fig. 145.— The Pelham bit. 



being constructed so that the bar has play up and down on the 
shank in order that the position of the bit may be, to a certain 
extent, automatically adjusted. The curb chain should be loose 
enough to admit from two to three fingers when the bit hangs 
naturally with no pressure upon it. Then the bit should be so 
adjusted as to bring the chain into its proper groove. If too 
high, its pressure comes on the sharp margins of the lower jaw 
with, injurious effect. 

Accessories. — Chech or Bearing Rein. — The overdraw check, 
attached either to a small check bit, a chin strap, or some modi- 
fication of either or both, takes the bearing directly over the 
pole and therefore has the effect of extending the nose and at 
least favoring, if not suggesting, an extension of stride. It also 



276 THE HORSE IN SERVICE 

prevents the compression of the larynx and the interference with 
breathing, which come from sharp flexion of the neck under a 
pnlL The overdraw check rein accompanies the snaffle bit, 
never the curb. The rein should not be attached to the snaffle 
bit itself, as its bearing- will displace the bit in the horse's 
mouth, thereby destroying its relation with the structures on 
which it is supposed to bear. 

This rein is used on speed and road horses which are not 
reined up long periods at a time and are driven at a pace, at 
which they go against the bit in such a way as to put the head 




Fig. 146. — The side check or bearing rein with bridoon bit. 

and neck in a position in which the bearing of the check rein is 
very much relieved. The check bit may even be dropped com- 
pletely out of the mouth, although the rein seemed tight when 
the horse was standing. 

They are out of place on the horse which is required either 
to do continuous road work, to pull any load, especially up hill, 
or to stand hitched for any length of time. Ignorant or thought- 
less use of the overdraw check is one of the most common and 
severe abuses which horses have to endure. 

The side or bearing rein is attached either directly to the 



EQUITATION 



277 



bridoon bit (Fig. 140) or to a pulley bridoon (Fig. 147). It 
places the bearing at the side of the head, having the effect of 
drawing the chin in and arching the neck without necessarily 
elevating the head very much. This rein is an adjunct to the 
curb bit, co-operating with it in suggesting a shorter but higher 
stride and a more collected way of going. 

Its use is especially indicated in the case of horses which 
yield to the curb with the entire neck instead of with the head 
only, which brings the chin to a position almost against the 
breast. Severe reining of this character, especially in short, 
thick-necked horses, may seriously compress the larynx, in addi- 
tion to causing extreme discomfort and muscular cramp. 




Fig. 147. — The pulley bridoon bearing rein. 

The Coupling Rein, — In pair harness the reins consist of 
the draught or outside reins and the inside or coupling reins, 
one of which is attached to each draught rein and passes to the 
inside of the bit of the opposite horse. A pull to right, for in- 
stance, is thus communicated to the off side of each horse's mouth 
and in equal degree, provided the adjustment of the coupling- 
reins has been properly made. 

Coupling is the finishing touch in putting a pair of horses 
together, and determines whether they are to drive " like one 
horse " or whether the driver is to be ever conscious of the pres- 



278 THE HORSE IN SERVICE 

ence of two horses in. his team. In order to exert equal pressure 
on both sides of each mouth, the relative carriage of heads, 
promptness in driving, disposition, etc., of both horses must be 
taken into consideration. With a pair of horses closely matched 
in every way, the coupling reins should be from four to six 
inches longer than the draught reins, since they are the hypo- 
theni of triangles. If one horse carries his head higher than the 
other, his coupling rein should be on top in order not to be borne 
down upon by that of the lower headed horse. If one-horse sets 
his head and neck in a flexed position, his rein should be short- 
ened to take up the slack so* produced. Or if one drives more 
freely than the other, his rein must be shorter to keep. him under 
restraint without pulling the other horse. In order, however, 
to keep the horses' heads an equal distance apart and their bodies 




N N' 
Fig. 14 S. — The adjustment of the coupling reins is shown by the dotted lines. 

parallel with the pole, whatever is taken up in one rein must be 
let out ill the other. Having the coupling reins too' short draws 
the heads together and throws the horses out from the pole, some- 
times causing them to fall, on pavements and down grades. Too 
long coupling reins turn the heads out and the bodies in against 
the pole. 

Figure 148 illustrates by solid lines the position of the reins 
when the horses carry their heads and necks alike, AB and CD 
representing the bits of the two horses, AM and DN the draught 
reins, BN and CM the coupling reins. If, however, the off horse 
carries his chin in, or for other reasons requires his rein to be 
shortened, the altered position of the coupling reins is shown by 
the dotted lines. Coupling rein BN is taken up on the draught 
rein to N 1 , the take back on the draught rein to A 1 being made 
by the hand of the driver. This, however, would shorten coupling 



EQUITATION 279 

rein CM unless it be let out on its draught rein to the same 
extent that BN has been shortened. 

The more* nervous horse is often put on the off side so as to 
bring the other horse between him and objects to be passed in the 
road, it being the. American rule of the road to keep to the right. 
It also brings him closer to> the hands of the driver, who sits on 
the right side. The largest horse is customarily put on the off 
side for the reason that in turning to the right on roads the sur- 
faces of which are crowned, as is usually the case, the off horse 
is called upon to pull more in returning the load to the centre of 
the road. 

Blinds or Winkers. — Many horses are rendered much more 
serviceable by having their field of vision restricted to the direc- 
tion in which they are supposed to go. Both nervous horses, 
which will jump at any sudden movement of those behind them, 
and lazy horses, which are disposed to loaf, usually drive much 
more steadily and promptly with winkers. Careful adjustment 
of the winker, both as to height and as to length of the winker 
stay, should be made so as to prevent the horse's looking over it, 
but. allowing full vision forward. A sudden change from a blind 
to an open, bridle or the reverse may be most disconcerting to the 
horse. Appointments require winkers on heavy harness; with 
light harness they are optional. 

Martingale. — There are two varieties, standing and ring. 
A standing martingale is a strap passing from the belly band, 
between the forelegs, to either the bit or nose band, and has the 
effect of preventing the elevation of the head beyond a certain 
level. It is most generally employed on trotters that are diffi- 
cult to catch in breaks, saddle horses that rear, and polo ponies 
that endanger their riders by throwing their heads up in response 
to the severe curb, when pulled up sharply. 

The ring martingale is not attached to the horse's head, but 
terminates in two rings through which the reins pass. Its action 
is generally the same as the standing martingale but in less de- 
gree. Its adjustment should always permit of the reins being 
almost at the level of the bit and turret rings, thus holding but 
not pulling the horse's head down. It is used on both light har- 



280 THE HORSE IN SERVICE 

ness and saddle horses ; the snaffle rein only, in the case of the 
latter, passing through it. 

Nose Band. — The object of the nose band is to keep the 
mouth shut and the bit in position, thus preventing yawing and 
lugging. It also serves as an attachment for the standing mar- 
tingale. Heavy harness and most riding bridles are regularly 
equipped with nose bands. 

Chin Strap. — This is a strap that passes under the chin 
either in front of or through the bit especially designed for it, 
and serves to place the bearing of the check rein under the chin 
instead of on the upper jaw, to keep the mouth shut, and to 
prevent the lateral pulling of the bit through the horse's mouth. 

The bristle burr is a round leather disc fitted around the bit 
inside the ring or shank, against the cheek, and is often applied 
to one side only. It is used on horses which either side rein or bolt 
to one side, in order to keep them off that side of the bit. 

The Word. — Well-schooled horses, in competent hands, may 
either be started, pulled up, stopped, backed, or changed in their 
gait without a word being spoken. Only a few words, such as 
" whoa," " back," and possibly " steady," are justifiable under 
any circumstances, and they should be spoken distinctly and 
always for the same purpose. It is more the tone and modulation 
of the voice, in speaking, than the word itself, which the horse 
interprets. The objection to a careless and indiscriminate use 
of words in either driving or riding is that they are not only con- 
fusing oftentimes to the horse for which they are intended, but 
may disturb all other horses within hearing. Every horse should 
know and heed the command " whoa," which should always 
mean a full stop. 

The whip should be used more for punishment than persua- 
sion. The continued tapping of the whip, like the jabbing of 
the reins, will make a loafer of any horse. Discretion in its 
application will insure both uniform and prompt response. 

FOEM 

There are two ends sought by good horsemanship : First, the 
safety and comfort of the individuals who are riding or driving, 
which depends upon one's ability to keep his horse both between 



EQUITATION 



281 



fences and on his feet ; and second, the ease with which this is 
accomplished. 

Form may be simply defined as the maimer in which a thing 
is done. So much importance is attached to form in some in- 
stances that results are all form and nothing else. Form usu- 
ally marks the made equestrian, whose real horsemanship still 
lacks something. On the other hand, it is probable that the 
naturally good rider or driver will number form with his other 
accomplishments. 

Following the thought of the definition, it may be inferred 
that good form consists in doing a thing in the correct way. 




Fia. 149. — Reins held in left hand, right hand free for take-back or whip. 

Right, in this sense, does not mean according to the dictates of 
fashion but in that manner which insures its being done with 
greatest, efficiency and readiness. We should accept what has 
been established as the correct manner of riding and driving 
as that which contributes most to the safety, comfort, and appear- 
ance of those directly concerned. If beginners in horsemanship 
could be induced t<> take advice from some one who really knows, 
ultimate results would be much more satisfactory to both them- 
selves and their horses. One frequently sec- accidents narrowly 
averted or the most flagrant cruelties practiced purely through 
the ignorance of the perpetrators, who would be as much (lis- 



282 



THE HORSE IN SERVICE 



tressed as any one if they fully realized the seriousness of their 
mistakes. 

The Rudiments of Driving. — The rudiments of the proper 
way to drive are as follows : Under ordinary conditions drive 
with the left hand, with the right hand free for either take-up or 
whip ; hold the near rein over the forefinger, the off rein between 
the middle and ring fingers, thus leaving the reins separated by 
two fingers, which allows sufficient space to introduce the fingers 
of the right hand quickly, to take back (Fig. 149). This is 
done by dropping the thumb and forefinger of the right hand over 




Fig. 150. — The take-back. 



the near rein, slipping the remaining three fingers between the 
two reins at such distance in advance of the left hand as may be 
required (Fig. 150). The reins should be gripped by their edges 
rather than by their flat sides. Either rein may be taken up 
by the right hand as in the case of a turn, and the off rein may be 
released by the left hand, passing through the right hand and 
over the thumb in case a two-hand grip is desired (Fig. 151). 
The position of the left hand should be with the knuckles 
turned forward and perpendicular, the forearm horizontal and 
at very nearly right angles with the reins. This position insures 
the greatest freedom of wrist and fingers, is conducive to a light 



EQUITATION 



283 



hand, and renders almost impossible a continuous, dragging 
pull. 

Gloves permit of both a better grip and more easy manipu- 
lation of the reins, but they should be a size too large and un- 
buttoned to allow the greatest freedom of the fingers and wrist. 

Riding, — Holding the Reins. — The usual method of holding 
the reins of a curl) and snaffle riding bridle is to lake the near 
snaffle rein over the little finger of the left hand, the near curb 
rein between the little and ring fingers, then pass the off curb rein 
between the ring and middle fingers and the off snaffle rein 




Fig. 151. — The two-hand grip. 



between the middle and index fingers, the ends of all four reins 
coming out of the hand over the index finger and clasped by the 
thumb (Fig. 152). Either curb or snaffle reins can be taken up 
independently by the right hand back of the left, or the right hand 
may be dropped in front of the left, the little finger between the 
off curb and snaffle reins in case a two-hand grip is desired (Fig. 
153). The hands may be separated and their position on the 
reins changed by running the reins through the fingers as the 
hands are drawn apart. 

The single rein from the plain snaffle bridle is usually simply 
crossed through the hands. 



284 



THE HORSE IN SERVICE 



The trooper holds his single curb reins in the left hand, the 
two separated by the little finger, then passed through the hand 
and over the index finger, where they are clasped by the thumb. 




Fig. 152. — Riding, reins in one-hand grip, a, a', snaffle reins; B, B', curb reins. 




Fig. 153. — Riding, two-hand grip, a, a', snaffle reins; B, B', curb reins. 

The cow puncher uses an open, unbuckled rein which falls 
to the ground the moment it is released from the hand, serving 
to hold his pony as though anchored securely. He usually holds 



EQUITATION 285 

the reins loosely, separated by the forefinger, or with both reins 
gripped between the thumb and forefinger. 

The trooper, mounted officer, or cowboy rides with one hand 
in order to have a free hand for sabre, gun, stick, or rope, but 
for riding in the park and cross country it is not only per- 
missible but advisable to use both hands. Continued one-hand 
riding with the other hand hanging disengaged has a tendency 
toward an unsymmetrical development and carriage of shoulders. 
Since the trooper and cow puncher guide their horses by the rein 
on the neck exclusively, using the bit only for restraint, the finger- 
ing of the reins in their cases is quite different from that which is 
employed in riding a gaited or high school horse, for instance. 

The use of the reins implies pressure on the bit, with one 
notable exception — the saddle horse. All saddle horses, but 
especially those ridden with a single rein, are schooled to respond 
to pressure of the rein on the neck (rein wise), turning away 
from the side against which the rein is carried. If the reins 
are crossed in front of the horse's neck, pressure on one side of 
the neck puts pressure also on the opposite side of the mouth, 
with the usual result so far as the horse is concerned. Gradually 
he can be taught to respond to the rein on the neck without wait- 
ing for the pressure on the bit ; clever horses even learn to follow 
the movement of the hand as though bringing the rein against 
the neck on one side or the other. Of course, the reins are not 
crossed after the habit has been acquired. 

REVIEW 

1. Of what importance are the horse's mental limitations? 

2. "What is the principle which underlies our system of control? 

3. What is the line of transmission, from driver or rider to horse, of 

instructions for execution? 

4. What are good hands; a good mouth; and what is their relation ? 

5. Describe the snaffle and the curb bits, naming the structures of 

the mouth involved by each. 

6. When is a bit of the right size and properly adjusted? 

7. For what purpose was the over-draw check designed and to what 

extent is it abused ? 

8. When are the coupling reins of a pair of horses properly adjusted? 

9. To what extent should the word be used in riding or driving? Why? 
10. What is the proper manner of holding the reins in driving? Why? 



CHAPTER XVII 

VEHICLE, HARNESS, AND SADDLE 

It is quite natural to assume that horses were ridden long 
before they were driven, although the war chariot is mentioned 
in some of the earliest references to the horse in the service of 
man. The use of the vehicle is so generally dependent upon the 
construction of roads, and the nature of the roads in early times 
was so poor, that the comfort of passengers and safety of goods 
were much greater on the backs of horses and mules. It is so 
even to-day in the newer parts of our own country. Even after 
roads were built, the primitive vehicles were so crude and lumber- 
ing that they were used chiefly for agricultural hauling. 

After the pillion method of conveying people came the 
horse litter (fifteenth century), a carriage swung between two 
poles which were supported at both ends by horses which were 
either led or ridden. 

The evolution of the wheeled vehicle may be traced in steps : 
First, the most crude sort of a sledge, often consisting of the 
forked branches of a tree, dragged in the manner of a stone boat ; 
second, the addition of fixed rollers ; third, the turning of large 
rollers into the form of wheels or rollers on the ends of a revolv- 
ing axle, this being the first semblance of wheels (Fig. 154) ; 
fourth, a fixed wooden axle on which the wheels revolved, being 
held in place by pins; fifth, the construction of the metal axle 
with boxed hub wheel, designed to meet if not to minimize 
friction ; sixth, the highest development of this idea, represented 
in the modern lubricated or even roller and ball-bearing axles, 
with wheels of the strongest yet lightest construction. 

The Wheel. — The roller is the means by which rubbing fric- 
tion is transformed into rolling friction, which requires very 
much less draught to overcome, and the wheel is the highest type 
of roller. The two parts of the wheel concerned with friction 
are the tire, which rolls on the road, and the box of the hub, 
286 



VEHICLE, HARNESS, AND SADDLE 



287 




which rubs on the axle. The tire rolls not only on the ground 
but also over any obstacle which the surface of the road may 
present, The width of the tire has already been discussed under 
" Draft of the Load," Chapter XIII. 

The resilience of the tire is a matter the importance of 
which has been made more appar- 
ent by the development of bicy- 
cling and motoring. The resil- 
ience is the springing back of the 
tread behind the point of contact 
of the wheel with the ground. It 
may be present either in the tire 
of the wheel or the surface over 
which the wheel rolls. The force 
of the resilience is equivalent 
to the additional force required 
to compress the tread ahead of 
the point of contact, as the wheel 
rolls. 

Rubber tires have the general 
effect of the wheel travelling over 
a yielding surface, which in- 
creases the draft, but if the 
rubber is sufficiently resilient to 
restore the force thus expended, 
the actual draft required may 
be reduced, since the rubber 
cushion acts like a spring in ab- 
sorbing shock and thus prevent- 
ing waste of power in lifting 
the load over every little obstacle, 
then letting it fall, with a pound, 
on the road again. This saving 
is greater the higher the speed 
at which the vehicle is pulled. 

The pneumatic tire, acting on the same principle, very mate- 
rially reduces the draft of vehicles so equipped, as shown by the 
experiments of Morin : 





Fig. 154. — The evolution of the wheel. 



288 



THE HORSE IN SERVICE 



Iron tires — Walk three miles per hour .require traction of 48 lb. per ton 
Iron tires — Trot 6V2 miles per hour. . . .require traction of 59 lb. per ton 
Iron tires — Fast trot 9.4 miles per hour .require traction of 77 lb. per ton 

Pneumatic tires — Walk require traction of 48 lb. per ton 

Pneumatic tires — At other paces require traction of 50 lb. per ton 

Bearings. — Rubbing friction between the axle and the box of 
the hub with which it is in contact is controlled by lubrication 
and special bearings of rollers, cones or balls, in place of the 
simple friction bearing. 







Fig. 155. — The cylindrical axle arm. 



Fig. 156. — The tapered axle arm. 



Axles are either cylindrical or tapered. The cylindrical 
axle arm (Fig. 155) insures a truer bearing and easier running, 
in case the road is level from side to side, the tire at right angles 
to the face of the wheel and the arm itself horizontal. There are 
many reasons for modifying these conditions prerequisite to the 
best results from the cylindrical axle, however, which render the 
tapered axle better adapted to common use. The tapered arm 




y/y/////w/////, 

Fig. 157. — Tapered axle arms pitched. 



Fig. 158. — An unpitehed tapered axle. 



(Fig. 15 G) is stronger for a given weight, since it is heaviest at 
the point of greatest strain, the shoulder. With the tapered axle 
it is a much simpler matter to maintain a good fit between axle 
and box by the use of leather washers placed between the wheel 
and the shoulder of the axle than in the case of the cylindrical 
axle, in which no subsequent adjustment is possible. For this 
reason the tapered axle is much more easily constructed. Axle 
arms are so pitched (Fig. 157) as to keep tbe wheel running 



VEHICLE, HARNESS, AND SADDLE 



289 



snug to the shoulder instead of running off as it would tend 
to do with an unpitched tapered axle (Fig. 158). Incidentally, 
this pitch places the tops of the wheels farther apart and, there- 
fore, throws the mud or dust away from instead of against the 
body of the wagon. 

Wheels are dished, that is the spokes are set in the hub at an 
angle, instead of perpendicularly, for several reasons (Fig. 
159). In the case of a pitched axle, dish- 
ing brings the spokes of the lower half of 
the wheel into an upright position, in 
which they are capable of sustaining the 
greatest weight. Dishing also braces the 
wheel against being sprung by a lateral 
thrust from the inside, as occurs when the 
vehicle bounds back and forth from side 
to side over the road. Dishing also 
affords an automatic means of keeping 
wheels tight. The effect of wear and con- 
tinued battering over stones, rails, and 
all kinds of rough roads is to expand 
metal tires, thus allowing the spokes to 
loosen in both hub and felloe. In the 
dished wheel, however, the spokes are not 
only set at an angle, but the tire, after 
being expanded by fire, is fitted so close 
that when suddenly contracted by cold 
water it draws the ends of the spokes 
into a still greater dished position than 
they were originally set in. Therefore, 
any expansion that occurs in the tires 
is immediately taken up by the spokes 

springing toward the perpendicular. The centrifugal force of 
the revolving wheel also operates to throw the spokes into a per- 
pendicular position, which assists in keeping them taut against 
the felloe and tire, by which they are bound. 

In pitching the axle arms or dishing the wheels, care must be 
taken to keep the tire parallel with the road surface so as not to 
drag or scuff, as motorists say, but roll evenly over its entire width. 
19 




Fig. 159. — The dished 
arrangement of the spokes in 
the hub. 



290 



THE HORSE IN SERVICE 



Very light wheels may have the spokes set in the hub in 
staggered fashion (Fig. 160) in order to brace the wheel against 
being sprung by a side thrust from either direction. Instead of 
being lined up in the hub every other spoke is set 
outside the centre of the hub, which is directly 
in line with the felloe, the other spokes being 
set inside. Thus each alternate half of the 
spokes braces the wheel in opposite directions. 
Wheeled passenger vehicles were first intro- 
duced into England in 1555, according to Sir 
Walter Gilbey, and were in limited use in 
France a little before that time. Queen Elizabeth 
was the first sovereign to use a coach, it having 
been brought from the Netherlands and pre- 
sented to her by a Dutchman, William Boonen, 
who later became her coachman. This was one 
of the first carriages seen in England and was of most cumber- 
some but pretentious design (Fig. 161). 

Progress in carriage building was as rapid as the gradual im- 




Fig. 160.— The 
staggered arrange- 
ment of the spokes 
in the hub. 




Fig. 161. — One of the cumbersome and pretentious early coaches. 



provement of the roads would permit, and they remained in very 
bad condition until late in the eighteenth century. 

Steel springs were first used in 1670, although our buckboard 
idea had been represented at a much earlier time, in the way of 



VEHICLE, HARNESS, AND SADDLE 



291 



strap supports in which the body of the vehicle was slung (Fig. 
162), or two long, supple poles, supported at the ends by the 
axles, and upon which the body was suspended. Iron tires were 
reported in the first half of the nineteenth century, although 
wooden rims, braced with iron at the joints, had been previously 
used. 

Use of Rubber. — Early attempts were made at shock absorp- 
tion, it being no doubt more imperative then than now, on ac- 
count of the rough condition of the roads. The pneumatic tire 
was patented in France in 1846, but proved impracticable at 
that time. Before this, inflated cushions over the springs, 




Fig. 162. — Strap supports in which the body of the vehicle was slung. 



rubber cushions inside the hubs, and spring spokes, had all been 
attempted. In 1883 rubber cushions under the iron tires were 
tried. 

The first brakes were used 1860 to 1865. 

Superior ^Yoods. — A distinct advantage is claimed for 
American carriage builders over those of any other country on 
account of the superior woods which are available to them. 
Hickory is fast replacing oak in carriage construction, and 
American woods are extensively exported for the use of foreign 
manufacturers. The American idea in carriage design is light, 
rigid strength of the " split hickory " sort, while foreign car- 
riages are much heavier. It is interesting to note the 1 exchange 
of ideas between England and the United States; while carriages 



292 



THE HORSE IN SERVICE 



of English type have come to dominate our show rings, the Eng- 
lishmen are showing their high steppers to a bike wheeled vehicle 
not unlike our American road wagon (Fig. 163). 




Fig. 163. — A class of English harness horses. 



Vehicles Classified. — Vehicles may he classified as follows 

I. For the transportation of merchandise : 
Van 5. Wagon 

Dray 6. Express Delivery 

Truck 7. Light Delivery 



1. 
2. 
3. 

4. Cart 



II. Four-wheelers for the transportation of passengers : 

Omnibus 9. Rockaway 

Opera Bus 10. Mail Phaeton 

Wagonette 11. Demi Mail Phaeton 

Station Wagon 12. Stanhope Phaeton 

Berlin 13. Spider Phaeton 

Landau 14. George IV (Lady's) Phaeton 

7. Brougham 15. Sayler Wagon 

8. Coupe 16. Victoria 



VEHICLE, HARNESS, AND SADDLE 293 

17. Cabriolet 22. Trap 

18. Surrey 23. Park Drag 

19. Runabout 24. Road Coach 

20. Road Wagon 25. Brake 

21. Speed Wagon 

Two- wheelers for the transportation of passengers : 

1. Gig 4. Brake Cart 

2. Hansom 5. Jogging Cart 

3. Jaunting Car 6. Sulky 

THE IIARXESS 

There are three general classes of harness, — work, heavy, 
and light. The chief distinctions between the latter have already 
been referred to. Heavy harnesses are differentiated as coach, 
gig, and runabout. The typical light harness is also designated 
as a single strap or track harness. 

THE SADDLE 

Horses were ridden long before saddles were thought of, but 
saddles of various sorts were described at an early period. The 
horse cloth was used first (800 B.C.), but real saddles, with trees, 
were reported in the fourth century a.d. The side-saddle was 
introduced by Anne of Bohemia in the last half of the fourteenth 
century. 

Types. — There are in general three types of saddles and, cor- 
respondingly, three ways of sitting them or " seats " : 

The English or flat, pig skin saddle is used for park riding, 
hunting, polo, and racing, with some modifications especially 
adapting it to each purpose. Its chief characteristics are a low 
tree, also low pommel and cantle, padding, skirts usually with 
knee pads, buckled girths usually double, and open steel stir- 
rups. Seat — Natural sitting posture, stirrups medium length, 
knee grip, posting the trot. See illustrations of gaited and walk- 
trot-canter saddle horses, Chapter V. 



294 



THE HORSE IN SERVICE 



The McClellan saddle is the regulation United States Army 
saddle. Its features are a medium high, open tree, open seat, 




Fig. 164. — Philadelphia mounted police equipped with McClellan aa< 

curb bridles. 



lies and single-rein 




Fig. 165. — The style of riding to which the stock saddle is best adapted. 

high pommel and cantle, blanket pad, cinch, and hooded stirrups. 
Seat. — Close, pommel and cantle support, long stirrup and thigh 
grip (Fig. 164). 



VEHICLE, HARNESS, AND SADDLE 295 

The stock or Texas saddle is used exclusively for range work 
and for rough riding in general throughout the West. Its feat- 
ures are a heavy steel tree, a very high pomniel surmounted with 
a horn for roping, deep seat, very high cantle, heavy square skirts, 
double cinch, no buckles, and heavy wooden or steel, hooded or 
open stirrups. Seat. — Comparatively loose but balanced, 
straight leg and long stirrup (Fig. 1(55). 

bridles 

Riding bridles are snaffle, curb, or curb and snaffle. The 
plain snaffle is used on race horses, some hunters, and ponies; 
the curb alone in cavalry and police service and by stockmen; 
the curb and snaffle on either gaited or walk-trot-canter saddle 
horses, some hunters, and polo ponies. 

A special hunting snaffle, with double rein, one of which is 
run through a ring martingale, is most commonly used on hunters. 

REVIEW 

1. Why do we presume that horses were ridden before they were 

driven ? 

2. What were the steps in the evolution of the wheeled vehicle? 

3. Why does a wheeled vehicle require less traction than a stone boat? 

4. What is the effect of rubber tires on draft 1 ? 

5. Why are axle anus pitched? 

6. Why are wheels dished? 

7. How are vehicles classified? Give an example of each class. 

8. What are the three classes of harness and the essential features of 

each? 

9. What are the chief differences in the three types of saddles and the 

" seats " with which they are ridden ? 
10. Name the types of riding bridles and the uses of each. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

MARKETS AND SHOWS 

The horse show serves a manifold purpose. It entertains 
the public, furnishes high-class sport for exhibitors, stimulates 
interest in horses and equestrianism, promotes the horse breed- 
ing industry by affording the best means of advertising, and, 
most important of all, it establishes ideals or standards for the 
guidance of breeders. 

Classes of Show Horses. — Show horses are classified into 
market and breeding divisions. In the market division the 
classes are made up on the basis of type, primarily, the horses 
of each type being classified either according to weight, height, 
or performance and further into singles, pairs, threes, fours, 
sixes, and so on. Age, sex, and breed are not as a rule consid- 
ered in the market classification. Any class may in addition 
have special requirements, as " performance only to count " or 
" conformation 40 per cent., performance 60 per cent." 

Breeding classes are made up on the basis of age, duplicated 
for each, sex and in connection with each breed. In addition 
there are usually classes for get of sire, produce of dam, groups 
either bred or owned by exhibitor, and specials. 

Fitting horses for the show ring consists in schooling them 
for a creditable performance and feeding and grooming them 
into the condition and bloom in which they make the best ap- 
pearance. All show horses, of whatever type, should be fat 
in some degree. 

Showing. — Breeding classes are shown " in hand " either 
with lead bridle or on the lunge rein, in the case of stallions ; 
to halter frequently, in the case of mares. Trotters and pacers 
are usually shown beside a pony, while drafters and heavy har- 
ness horses are shown by runners on foot. 

Market classes are shown in harness or under saddle, as the 
case may be. An exception is made in the cast of drafters, 
which are shown to halter as Avell as in harness. Harness horses 
296 



MARKETS AND SHOWS 297 

should be put to appropriate vehicles ; appointments may or may 
not count, as indicated in the class requirements. Harness and 
saddle horses should be either driven or ridden well into the 
corners of the ring, in order to go as much of the route as pos- 
sible straight away. 

Exhibitors are at all times subject to the direction of the 
ring master, who acts under the instructions of the judges. Con- 
testants, not in the short leet or disqualified for any reason, are 
dismissed from the ring or " given the gate." 

HORSE MARKETS 

Commerce is the interchange of commodities, and the market 
is the medium for this. The exchange takes place between the 
producer on the one hand and the consumer <>n the other, market 
values being determined by the balance maintained between the 
amount produced and the amount consumed. Consumption be- 
ing fixed, over-production bears or depresses the market while 
under-production will bring about an increase in market values. 
With a given amount produced, excessive consumption bulls or 
increases market values, while a decrease in the demand from 
the consumer will have an opposite effect on values. 

The demand of the consumer not only determines market 
values, but also the character of the product for which the top 
price can be secured. Therefore, while both the producer and 
the consumer are concerned in maintaining the strength of the 
market and with the character of the product involved, it is the 
consumer w T ho really rules. This is a most important fact for 
the horse breeder to realize. 

The Breeder and the Market. — Unfortunately there is a dif- 
ference between horse breeding and the production of market 
horses. Too many breeders operate independently or in total 
ignorance of market conditions and requirements. Their ideal of 
a market horse is both single and selfish and does not comprehend 
type or class distinction. It is not unusual to find an owner 
sacrificing a colt which has some real outcome in a market class 
for which the demand is strong but of which the owner knows 
nothing, while trying to secure his price for one of whose value 



298 THE HORSE IN SERVICE 

he has either an erroneous or exaggerated notion. " Picked out 
of the bushes " means bought cheaply from an obscure owner who 
had no conception of the horse's ultimate value. It represents the 
practice of buyers who measure their profits by the ignorance, in 
horse matters, of those from whom they buy. 

With the exception of drafters, the horse breeder receives a 
smaller percentage of the price his colt eventually brings than 
in the case of any other live stock product. It is true that most 
farmers are not equipped with time or facilities to properly 
school or train high-class saddle, show, or race horses, the ex- 
pense of which is usually worth about as much as the original 
cost of the green horse, but they frequently do not receive full 
value for their product in the rough, to which they are justly 
entitled. 

In order to produce salable colts and to realize full value for 
them, the breeder must keep himself well informed as to the 
character of the horses that are topping the markets. And the 
horse that brought the high price years ago may not be the best 
seller to-day, since market demand is continually undergoing 
some modification which should be taken into account by the 
producer, if he is to be successful. Furthermore, the breeder 
should be able to see, in prospect, into just what his colt is 
capable of developing. 

A knowledge of dealers, conditions of sale, and other essen- 
tials also aids materially in negotiating a satisfactory sale. 

The particular class desired will of course depend upon the 
purpose for which the horse is purchased. It is important, how- 
ever, that the requirements of some definite class shall be met, as 
those horses which are off type or misfits constitute the remnant 
stock of the horse market for which the lowest price and least 
profit are realized. 

First-handedness. — Service in the city usually draws the 
line between first- and second-hand edness. Marked evidence of 
a horse's being second-handed consists of the blemishes and minor 
unsoundnesses which come as a result of wear and tear, such as 
puffs, sprung knees, and cocked ankles. The dealer in buying 
first-hand country horses prefers that they should be untrimmed 
in any way. 



MARKETS AND SHOWS 299 

Sex. — As a rule geldings outsell mares on account of their 
more general usefulness throughout the season and also in view 
of the possibility of mares being in foal. Spring farm trade 
may demand mares. 

The Origin of Market Classes. — The origin of market classes 
is based on utility. Horses are required to perform a certain 
kind of service, and it is determined that those of certain definite 
features are better adapted to do this particular line of work than 
horses of any other sort. Thus, demand takes the form of 
specific requirements by the consumer, and there are created 
distinct market classes. Some of the classes are more or less 
arbitrary as to name and requirements, so that on different 
markets it is not always easy to distinguish between them. The 
major divisions, however, can be differentiated on the broad 
basis of type. 

Market horses are, first of all, either classified or unclassified 
(see chapter on the Classes of Horses). 

Sales are either public or. private. Public sales are con- 
ducted by auctioneers and dealers; private sales by private 
owners and dealers. Sales, whether public or private, are usually 
followed as soon as possible by a transference of the horse to the 
buyer, who is allowed two days in which to give the horse fair 
examination and trial, at the end of which time, if the horse is 
not returned, the sale is considered complete. " Two days " is 
the rule most strictly abided by, but under certain conditions 
this may be extended to ten days or even two weeks, if so stated. 

Letters or evidence bearing upon a contract may complete it 
m law, .so that when horses are bought by correspondence the 
letters and documents act as a part of the contract. 

When any defects or unsoundnesses, otherwise apparent, are 
purposely covered up or hidden in any way, and discovered after 
the sale, the buyer has redress. The measure of damages he can 
recover is the difference hetween the 'price paid by him and the 
price he receives upon selling the horse in an open market. 

Auctioneers are usually licensed as such and are legally 
bound to conduct their sales under certain conditions. 

Conditions of Sale. — The buyer should familiarize himself 
with the conditions of sale. In all cases horses must be as rep- 



300 THE HORSE IN SERVICE 

resented, but in catalogues or bills the owner's statement below 
the description of a horse is not to be taken as a part of the con- 
tract or guarantee. As a rule, age, height, weight, and speed 
are not guaranteed in these sales. 

Sales are usually for cash, subject to the terms set forth in 
catalogues and bills and specified at the opening of the sale by 
the auctioneer. 

The owner is the only responsible party in sales. The auc- 
tioneer is an intermediate party acting as the owner's agent or 
representative, but he is also a protection to the buyer, as he can 
hold the seller to any statements he may make concerning the 
conditions under which the horse is sold. 

In most markets horses previously sold may be run through 
the sale like any other horses in order to give it life, color, and en- 
couragement, and this is not considered an unlawful practice. 

Sales Ring Warranty. — In Chicago, the largest horse market 
in America, horses are sold under five different guarantees of 
soundness, viz. : 

1. Sound. — The horse meets all requirements of soundness; 
comparatively rare. 

2. Serviceably Sound. — Unsound in some respect, which 
does not interfere with his fitness for the particular service for 
which sold. 

3. Sound to Wind and Work. — The horse's wind is good and 
he will work, but he is otherwise unsound. 

4. Worker Only. — True to work; all other conditions are 
to the eye of the buyer. 

5. At the Halter. — Carrying with it no warrant or guarantee 
whatever. 

Often horses sold at the halter are those that have been sold 
under previous guarantee and turned back, or sold to adjust some 
dispute or difficulty. 

With all Faidts. — When a horse is sold " with all faults " 
the seller is relieved from all liability. 

Private Sales. — It is often desirable, for intending pur- 
chasers to buy from private owners or dealers, under conditions 
which permit of more thorough examination. 

How to Buy a Horse. — There is probably nothing about the 



MARKETS AND SHOWS 301 

purchase of which there is so much suspicion and misgiving 
as a horse, yet there are horses sold on their merits and at prices 
which they are well worth. It may be further stated that there 
is nothing else in the purchase of which the buyer expects so 
much for so little. There probably always will be gyp dealers, 
but the only excuse for their existence is the credulity, ignor- 
ance, short-sightedness, and narrow policy of buyers. These 
traits of character constitute the business assets of the illegitimate 
seller. 

On the other hand, much has been accomplished in an effort 
to put the horse business* on a sound basis, where dealers stake 
their reputation on their sales the same as is done with pianos, 
real estate, diamonds, or any commodity of trade. One does not 
hesitate to pay a premium for a watch, a hat, or even a bottle of 
milk, which is the product of a house or firm with a reputation 
for furnishing full value in their goods. Yet a horse dealer is 
charged with unfairness and even chicanery, in many cases, if 
he charges much more than the cost of the raw material after 
having " made " the horses and sold them with a guarantee which 
protects the buyer from even the inevitable. This is done 
at the risk of the seller, who hazards ninny things for which he 
is in no way responsible, even should they occur. Another source 
of difficulty is the indiscriminate manner in which advice is 
accepted. The coachman, the town liveryman, the village black- 
smith, Uncle Hiram, and all the others are regarded as the wise 
ones, whose conflicting opinions must be accorded more consid- 
eration than the claims of the perfectly respectable citizen whose 
own business prosperity depends upon the horses he sells making 
good all he claims for them. 

It is a ridiculous situation. Any person who cares suffi- 
ciently for a horse to use him intelligently and with satisfaction 
should be competent to buy one. He should be able to deter- 
mine, by trial, whether or not the horse meets the buyer's require- 
ments ; and if he is, temporarily at least, sound of eyes, wind, 
and limb. If there is any question in regard to an obscure un- 
soundness, the services of a veterinarian should be employed to 
settle that point. If one does not feel qualified to make his own 
selection, but finds it necessary to seek advice, he should go direct 



302 THE HORSE IN SERVICE 

to the dealer — only reputable ones to be considered — admit his 
ignorance, state his requirements, and put himself, without any 
reservation, in the dealer's hands. It should not be difficult to 
find a dealer who would measure up to a responsibility of this 
kind. But he will charge, in the price of the horse, a reasonable 
fee for telling the truth about things of which the buyer is free 
to confess he knows little or nothing. For such advice the buyer 
can well afford to pay. If, however, he places no faith in the 
dealer, nor credits him with any conscience, but he and his 
advising friends proceed to bluff their way to a satisfactory 
purchase, they are tempting fate — and the dealer. 

Avoid all go-betweens who are " in the deal " for a profit. 
If it is a harness or saddle horse that is to be bought, do the 
dealer the honor to eliminate the coachman from the transac- 
tion. It is astonishing how gentlemen who consider themselves 
so thoroughly competent to manage their own affairs that they 
resent the least suggestion on most matters, make their coachmen 
the absolute masters of the situation in all affairs pertaining to 
their stables. This is one of the most difficult and aggravating 
propositions with which the square-dealing horse seller has to 
contend, and has much to do with keeping the price of horses 
high. If some " direct to the consumer " method of conducting 
the horse business were permitted by buyers, it would be much 
to the mutual benefit of all concerned. 

When buying green horses in the country, or whenever the 
buyer has no recourse but to rely on his own ingenuity in making 
a selection, some system should be followed. It is important 
that the horse be inspected in the stable. Note the condition of 
his stall ; this is the place to detect such vices as kicking, crib- 
bing, and weaving. Consider how he stands on his feet and the 
manner in which he backs out on the floor. The first few steps 
taken after standing will often reveal what the next few -will 
quickly obscure. Watch him harnessed, put to, and driven out 
Here again and here only many disagreeable traits may be dis- 
covered. Try him out in whatever way desired. Never buy a 
horse " hot/' i.e., warmed up. It may be more convenient to 
have a horse or a pair brought round for inspection, but there 
are a number of conditions of unsoundness that a horse may be 



MARKETS AND SHOWS 303 

warmed out of. Examine the eyes with a shadow cast on them ; 
note the relative size of the two front feet; then wind him and 
work him to see how he goes. 

The company plan of selling stallions may or may not be a 
perfectly legitimate transaction. It has its advantages and 
disadvantages to both buyers and sellers. It frequently happens 
that ten or twelve mare owners in a community would prefer 
taking a share or two of company stock to owning a stallion out- 
right. To them the company plan renders available the services 
of a valuable stallion of which they would otherwise be deprived. 
If they simply subscribe for their own stock and take no further 
part in the deal, they may expect the expense of organizing the 
company and selling the horse to them to be included in his cost 
price. Yet if a good selection is made, each subscriber may re- 
ceive good value, allowing for his own time saved. When, how- 
ever, the company plan is adopted as a means of unloading a 
counterfeit stallion for which there is no sale at the firm's stables, 
the horse being shipped to the town selected, accompanied by a 
smooth salesman -abundantly supplied with cash with which to 
mix among prospective subscribers and finally put through a 
sale, it should be condemned. 

The company plan of buying is preferable to the company 
selling plan. Let the organization of the company be instigated 
and perfected by those interested, and one or more of the mem- 
bers be delegated to go direct to the seller's headquarters, make 
a selection, and pay cash. Otherwise the cost of the same stallion 
will be about 20 per cent more, if sold on the company plan 
and the cost of the sale added to his price. 

REVIEW 

1. What is a market, and how are market classes and values determined? 

2. What is the importance of market information to the breeder and 

feeder? 

3. Explain the creation of market classes. 

4. What is a second-handed horse? 

5. What are the usual conditions of sale? 

6. Name six "don'ts" to observe in buying a horse. 

7. Is the company plan of selling stallions commendable? 

8. How are show horses classified? 

9. Of what does fitting for show consist ? 

10. How are the different classes of horses shown? 



CHAPTER XIX 



TRANSPORTATION 



Race and show horses and also market horses for sale, which 
are shipped long distances, as from the Middle West to the 
Eastern markets, are usually carried by express, while individ- 
ual horses or even a carload, shipped to or from local points, 
ordinarily go by freight. 

Express Cars. — The express companies furnish either horse 
cars fitted with adjustable stall partitions which accommodate 
from twelve to sixteen horses standing four abreast lengthwise of 
the car (Fig. 106) ; or large, loose horse cars open about one>- 
fourth the way down from the top and accommodating twenty- 
eight head with sufficient space to permit of their moving about 
and picking mates. The former type of car is used most by stal- 
lion importers, while the latter is preferred by the shippers of 
market geldings. 

For freight shipment open stock cars are found to be less 
draughty and afford better ventilation than closed box cars. Ex- 
perienced shippers of the highest class of horses declare they 
have less sickness subsequent to shipment, even in winter, in the 
open car. Horses are much less likely to contract colds if con- 
tinuously exposed to low temperatures than if chilled, even 
slightly, after a period of overheating, and the danger of infec- 
tion is always inverse to the amount of fresh air available. Most 
stock cars built nowadays are equipped with double coil springs 
to insure easy riding whether loaded heavy or light, a rigid steel 
underframe to prevent sagging, shock-absorbing draw-bars, 
rounded edges, countersunk bolt-heads and nuts in the interior, 
and are even of steel construction (Eig. 167). 

It is further advised, on good authority, to turn horses loose 
in the car, even if but one or two are to go. They are less liable 
to be thrown than if tied, ride much more comfortably, some in- 
stinctively lying down as soon as they enter a well-bedded car, 
and they come off the car at the end. of the trip in much better 
shape. 

304 



TRANSPORTATION 



305 



The more common practice, however, is to cross tie and even 
tie from above, allowing but little play. It usually matters not 
whether the horse is headed or backed to the locomotive, as a 
car rarely arrives in the same direction in which it was started, 




Fig. 166. — Express horse ear partitioned into stalls, four groups of four stalls 
each lengthwise of the car. 



unless on a short, straight run. If a mixed car of stock is shipped, 
necessitating the partitioning of the car, such partitions should 
be very substantial in both material and construction. Horses 
have been seriously injured and permanently blemished by being 
thrown through or against frail or makeshift partitions. 
20 



306 THE HORSE IN SERVICE 

Freight tariffs are not uniform, the country over, but the fol- 
lowing one is fairly typical : 

A carload is billed at a minimum of 20,000 pounds; single 
horses or less than a carload at 5000 pounds for one mare or 
gelding; 3000 pounds for each additional head. Stallions are 
rated at 7000 pounds straight, whether alone or in a mixed car 
of stock other than horses, although a stallion shipped in a full 
carload of horses only is not discriminated against. 

Care During Shipment. — Shipments of horses come under 
the federal law requiring all stock to be unloaded, fed, and 
watered every twenty-eight hours ; this time may be extended to 
thirty-six hours if so agreed between the shipper and carrier 



Fig. 167. — Stock car for shipping horses. 

beforehand. Less than a carload, accompanied by an attendant 
who feeds and waters them, are not subject to this law. Most 
carloads of horses are shipped unattended, as a. man can do little 
to either prevent or overcome trouble in the car en route. 

Horses are best prepared for shipment by a good fill of tim- 
othy hay and only a moderate ration of soft feed. They require 
little if any feed en route within a twenty-eight-hour limit, a 
small amount of hay to pick over being sufficient. The Penn- 
sylvania Railroad is eliminating the hay racks from its latest 
featured stock car, on the ground that hay is unnecessary with 
the operation of the twenty-eight-hour unloading law, that much 
of it is usually wasted, and that the racks take up valuable head 
room and, becoming loose or broken, as they frequently do, are a 
constant source of danger to the heads and eyes of horses. 



TRANSPORTATION 



307 



Race and show horses are frequently covered from tip to toe, 
hoods, blankets, and bandages being provided to protect them 
from possible draughts. Unless accustomed to much clothing, 
horses so covered are liable to become overheated and not ship 
so well as others that are but lightly blanketed or perhaps not 
covered at all. The closeness of the quarters insures against a 
very low temperature if there are many horses in the car. Band- 
ages rolled low around the coronets to protect from tramping, 




Fig. 168. — Just off the car from the West. 



pads about the eyes and poll, and knee pads are often provided 
as an extra precaution. 

Injury During Shipment. — The chief injury to horses in 
transit consists of bruises at the point of the hocks. There is 
little difficulty occasioned by horses getting down in the car, and 
if they do get down they usually experience little trouble in 
getting up on their feet again unless old or crippled, as is often 
the case in the second-hand horse trade. 

The well-nigh inevitable influenza or shipping fever, so-called, 
could probably be controlled to a certain extent if thorough dis- 
infection of cars were insisted upon. 



308 THE HORSE IN SERVICE 

Some high-strung, nervous horses are subject to car fits, as 
they are called, a form of hysteria resulting from the excitement 
and perhaps the cramped position which causes extreme dis- 
comfort. They will sometimes rear, pitch, and throw themselves 
to such an extent as to make it necessary to stop the train and 
remove them from the car in order to prevent them from doing 
serious damage to themselves or mates. Much travel will some- 
times enable them to overcome the difficulty, while in other cases 
it simply aggravates their condition (Fig. 168). 

REVIEW 

1. When are horses shipped by express and when by freight? 

2. Describe the express ears furnished to horse shippers. 

3. What type of freight cars are best for horse shipments and why ? 

4. Should horses be tied or turned loose during shipment? 

5. How are horses best prepared and cared for during shipment? 



CHAPTER XX 

THE MULE 

The importance of the mule as a factor in American agri- 
culture justifies a consideration of his production and use in a 
general discussion of Horse Husbandry. 

The mule conforms to the definition of a hybrid in that his 
sire is of one species, Equus asinus, and his dam is of another 
species, Equus caballus, the common ancestor within the genus 
being so remote as to render the hybrids sterile. 

Mule breeding was practiced by the ancients, and in some 
countries they are depended upon almost altogether for work. 
The inverse cross, which produces a liinny, is more difficult to 
accomplish, the hybrid being smaller and less useful as a rule, 
although it is contended by some that hinnies cannot be distin- 
guished from mules. 

Mules have always been bred most extensively in semi-tropical 
regions, the line being quite sharply drawn between the produc- 
tion of mules and draft horses. 

Classes of Mules. — An extended classification of mules is 
given, but they are all bred for essentially two purposes, — work in 
the fields and in the mines. Farm or plantation mules, or sugar 
and cotton mules, as the market classes them, are bred chiefly 
from well-bred mares of so-called hot blood and are therefore 
rangy, fine, and snappy movers. The Southerner regards it as 
no desecration to mate good saddle or trotting bred mares with 
a jack, and some extremely breedy mules are the result (Fig. 
169). 

The mine demand, which is of necessity for a draftier, bigger 
boned mule (Fig. 170), is met by mating the smaller, smoother 
class of draft mares with big-boned jacks. Mine mules work 
both on the surface and down in the mines. The latter range 
in height according to the veins in which they are to work. The 
little 12-hand pitters are much in demand and bring a price out 
of proportion to their size. 

309 



310 



THE HORSE IN SERVICE 



As Draft Animals. — Mules are not a success for heavy draft 
work on city streets, as they do not have either the weight or cir- 
cumference of foot to give them a good hold on pavements. Fur- 
thermore, it is the experience of teamsters that a mule pulls by 
a direct forward push instead of by the lift with which draft 
horses start their load. This, too, is conducive to slipping. 
Some light pairs of mules do well in light delivery service, and 
their feet withstand the battering of the pavements especially well 




r^-:~ * ' 



Fig. 169. — Representing the Kentucky standard of mule excellence. Their size, rangy, 
smooth form, quality, breediness, and temperament are such as are required of the highest 
class sugar mule. 



on account of a very thick, strong wall and sole, and their peculiar 
shape, which prevents both a contraction of heels and dropping 
of sole. 

The Mule's Advantages. — The mule has some distinct ad- 
vantages over the horse for some kinds of work. They may be 
enumerated as follows: 

He stands hot weather better and is less susceptible to diges- 
tive disorders and founder, it being customary to feed mules from 
troughs, where they may take their fill, like cattle. A mule 
takes better care of himself in the hands of an incompetent driver 



THE MULE 



311 



than a horse does, accepting his lot more philosophically, being 
naturally more of a plodder and therefore more steady and less 
fretful. 

On account of the peculiar form and structure of the mule's 
foot, he is less subject to foot lameness and the ordinary injurious 
effects of shoeing than is the horse, which is more commonly 
incapacitated for work on this account than any other. Lame- 




Fig. 170. — A rugged pair of n 



are drafty form and ample bone, representative of the best 
grade sought for mine use. 



ness in a mule is most often due to spavins and ringbones, but he 
will get along with a spavin which would practically put a horse 
out of business. Mules are almost invariably good -walkers. 
Stabling requirements for mules are much less elaborate than for 
horses, double stalls, with or without bales, or even pens in which 
a number are turned loose, being all that is needed. Age and 
infirmities seem to count less against mules, and as a rule an old 
or second-hand pair will outsell horses of equal merit. 



312 



THE HORSE IN SERVICE 



Mules are subject to a general prejudice which militates 
against them in all but limited parts of this country, and on 
account of this it is difficult to secure competent drivers for them. 

The mule is usually more sagacious than the horse, and is 
scarcely less responsive to proper treatment, yet the idea prevails 
that whatever service is gotten out of him must be knocked out, 
the black-snake whip and gag bit being considered essential fea- 
tures of mule team appointments. 




Fig. 171.— A Kentuc 



substance, and shape desired for mule 



Mare mules outsell horse mules on account of their smoother 
turned bodies and the fact that they are more easily kept in 
condition. 

The Jack. — Jack stock breeders distinguish between the type 
of jack best adapted to mating with jennies for the production 
of jack breeding stock and the stamp of jack best suited to mating 
with mares for the production of mule hybrids. 

The Standard of Excellence. — The jack most desired for 



THE MULE 



313 



mule breeding is at least 1G hands high. The more weight and 
substance he has the better. He is long and wide in form, having 
good-sized, well-shaped head and ears, straight legs of ample 
bone, and well-shaped feet of good size and texture (Fig. 171). 
Black with light points is the color most favored, not only for 
appearance sake, but because the get of such a jack out of mares 
of any or all colors have proven most uniformly of good colors. 
He should also be stylish. 

The native jack, so-called, although but a few generations 
removed from imported stock, has the reputation of getting a 
higher class of mules than the imported jacks themselves. Of 
the imported breeds, the Catalonian, Poitou, Maltese, Andaln- 
sian, Majorcan and Italian, the former is most popular. 




Fig. 172. — The right stamp of mares as attested by their produce. 

The Mare. — The mule is believed to take after the sire in the 
matter of head, ears, bone, and foot, while its stature and form of 
body, especially, are derived chiefly from the dam. There are 
many exceptions to this rule, however. Mares of good size and 
shape, black, bay, brown, or chestnut in color, and with a dash of 
hot blood, are best adapted to the production of mules (Fig. 172). 

REVIEW 

1. What is a mule? a hinny? 

2. What are the two general classes of mules and how is each produced ? 

3. What can be said in favor of using mules instead of horses for farm work? 

4. What type and breeding of jack is most desired for breeding mules? 

5. What sort of mares make the most satisfactory dams of mules? 



CHAPTER XXI 

THE MOTOR AS A FACTOR 

The force of the foregoing statements concerning the profit- 
able production and use of horses will be influenced by one's 
conception of the future status of the horse. To this end the 
motor must be reckoned with. At no time in history has the 
horse been subjected to such keen competition for place and favor 
as at the present. 

The motor is such an important factor as to require considera- 
tion in any discussion of equine affairs. The view-point, how- 
ever, should be fair and logical, not obscured by such sentiment 
or enthusiasm as characterizes a partisan review of either side 
of the question. There are ardent motorists who would have the 
horse annihilated for all time, while some riders and drivers 
would legislate the same end for all motordom; yet neither of 
these positions is warranted by the facts. 

Other Factors. — History is but repeating itself, apparently, 
as in the case of the invention of gunpowder ; the advent of canals 
and, later, railroads ; the adoption of the cable and the trolley on 
street railways ; and the past popularity of the bicycle ; each of 
which in turn threatened to supplant horses in their different 
fields. 

Advantages of the Motor. — An analysis of the situation at 
present concedes to the motor three distinct advantages over the 
horse: Speed, endurance, especially in hot weather, and vogue. 
Whenever the miles covered or the time consumed is the sole 
consideration it is reasonable to suppose that the motor will be 
shown the preference. So it is in the case of the doctor or the 
sales solicitor, men whose earning capacity is limited by the 
facility with which they can get about; likewise the travelling 
public and society folk have become so accustomed to a minimum 
time allowance for making trains or keeping engagements that 
they could hardly be expected to dispense with the taxicab or 
limousine. Suburban deliveries are made much more expedi- 
314 



THE MOTOR AS A FACTOR 315 

tiously by auto when they entail long, straight-away runs with 
few stops ; and the moving of large loads to a distant distributing 
point can be more quickly and cheaply done by the big motor 
trucks even than by railroad freight. 

Advantages of the Horse. — For the about-town delivery of 
many small parcels, each one to a different house, requiring 
almost continuous starts and stops, with frequent runs in and out 
of short streets, the auto deliveries are more costly and less effi- 
cient. Horses have their routes, and lend their assistance in 
anticipating stops and starts or even turning round themselves 
and waiting round the corner while their driver resorts to a short 
cut across lots. 

Wherever much time is spent in standing or waiting the ad- 
vantage is with the horse-drawn vehicle on account of the smaller 
investment represented and the less depreciation involved. 

Cost of Feed and of Gasoline. — Clever motor salesmen have 
taken advantage of the abnormally high cost of horse feeds for 
the past few years in their calculations of the relative economy 
of horse-drawn and motor vehicles. But with feed inclining 
again to a normal level, while the cost of gasoline is advancing 
at such a rate as to threaten automatically to check the patronage 
of the motor, unless other fuel or motive power is resorted to, 
there is little weight in such arguments. 

A Motor Age. — There is every evidence of this being a motor 
age ; the motor idea is conspicuous in our mode of dress ; it pre- 
dominates in our conversation. Whereas the small boy of past 
generations straddled the broomstick or harnessed two overturned 
chairs and played horse, he now turns his ingenuity to the con- 
struction and operation of racing pushmobiles of the latest type 
and full equipment; patrons of the remnant counters demand 
that the goods purchased by them shall be delivered by auto, in 
case the firm is so derelict as to still retain some antiquated speci- 
mens of the genus Equus in their delivery service. All this is 
fully appreciated by those engaged in the business of catering to 
public patronage, and it is played upon in every possible way 
by the auto salesman. 

Vogue gives to the automobile, however, a much less stable 
advantage over the horse than does its greater efficiency in long, 



316 



THE HORSE IN SERVICE 



fast runs. Popular favor is self-limiting, and the stronger the 
wave of general popularity the harder the brakes will set. The 
pacemakers of fashion are the ultra-exclusive set; as soon as a 
fad which they have started gains sufficient momentum to reach 
the butcher, the baker, and so on, it is considered common and is 
dropped by the very ones who first became sponsors for it, and 
their example is invariably followed (Fig. 173). The remark- 
able increase in the number of cars used each season, together 
with the great variety of individuals enlisting in the ranks of 




Fig. 173.- 



-Park horse to victoria, correctly appointed. An equipage with an individuality 
which can never become common. 



the motorists, suggest that we are rapidly approaching the crest 
of the wave. 

The horse markets, shows, park drives, and bridle paths offer 
substantial evidence that the horse is being gradually reinstated, 
not in his former capacity perhaps, because the automobile has 
modified uses and customs, but in greater favor than ever, so 
far as some types are concerned. If the activities of the motor 
road monopolists were properly regulated, both as to the con- 
struction and use of roads, a preference for the horse would be 
shown by many drivers who have been forced off the road by fear 
of fallen horses and collisions. 



THE MOTOR AS A FACTOR 317 

With the present vogue abated, the motor will become, no 
doubt, a cold business proposition, which facilitates affairs in 
such a multitude of ways as to be indispensable, like the tele- 
phone. 

Supplements to the Horse in Service The roadster the 

touring car, and the limousine have all added so much to our 
possibilities in their respective fields that they must be included 
in every completely equipped establishment, but there is nothing 
to render them incompatible with the horse in a kindred relation- 
ship. The commercial truck, also, performs so many lines of 
service so much more acceptably than the horse ever can, that 
its supremacy within limits cannot be denied. Yet in this the 
motor is supplementing, not supplanting, the horse in service. 

Demand for Saddle Horses. — It may seem like overdrawn 
optimism to attribute to the automobile any advantages accruing 
to the horse, but. such is not difficult of demonstration. The 
motor car has been a most important factor in the prevalent 
country life movement. Distances are so contracted by its use as 
to place the country within easy access of many who could not 
otherwise enjoy it. The country without a horse is like a library 
without, books. Fox hunting is becoming the sport of a greater 
number of people in this country each season, partly, at least, on 
account of the rapid transit facilities offered by the automobiles. 

There are more people riding to-day on doctors' pre- 
scriptions than ever before. The convenience of the auto has 
removed the necessity for even a physiological amount of exer- 
cise, which must be compensated for in some other way. Thus, 
while no doubt depressing the market for coach and road horses, 
the automobile has furnished a boom to the saddle horse trade. 

There is a sentimental side to the subject under discussion. 
Motor possibilities have left horses, except those in the commer- 
cial field, chiefly in the hands of people who want them because 
they are horses, with the result that they are in their highest 
estate, a condition most satisfactory to them ami most gratifying 
to those interested in their well-being (Fig. 174). Xo one who 
cares for horses regrets either the substitution of the taxicab for 
'the horse-drawn hansom or four-wheeler, nor the. transference of 
the ordinary livery patronage to the garage. He who rides only 



318 



THE HORSE IN SERVICE 



for the thrill would confer a favor on horse kind by devoting 
himself to aeronautics. 

Better Breeding of Horses. — Finally there is an economic 
significance to the whole situation. Competition stimulates to 
best efforts. Now the consumers of horses are discriminating; 
demand is for horses of the highest type. It has been observed 
that after an experience in buying and maintaining automobiles 




Fig. 174. — Motor advantages enjoyed by the horse. 

in service one becomes more appreciative of horse values and 
more liberal in his allowance for cost. The result will be more 
intelligent and systematic breeding for a definite purpose, with 
consequently less failures, and, finally, a more liberal profit to him 
who meets the demand of those who can afford to discriminate 
and pay well for what they require. 

Prices of Horses Not Reduced — The extent to which the 
horse market has actually been influenced by the increasing 
patronage of the motor vehicle is shown by the following state- 
ment from the Farmer's Advocate: 



THE MOTOR AS A FACTOR 319 

" The average price of the different classes of horses on the 
Chicago market in 1912 was as follows : 

Draft horses $210 Bussers and trammers. . .$175 

( iarriage pairs 473 Saddlers 195 

Drivers 177 Southern chunks 97 

General purposes 160 

" In all but two classes, viz., carriage pairs and drivers, these 
averages are the highest on record; even carriage horses and 
drivers sold high." 

Under-production may he assigned by some as the cause of 
normal prices being so well sustained, and it may be so in the 
case of harness horses ; but if the business of the stallion im- 
porters, the number of entries at the shows, and the general 
awakening of interest in draft horse affairs are any criterion, 
there is more draft horse breeding at this time than ever before. 



REVIEW 

1. What other factors have in the past threatened to supplant the horse 

as in the present case of the motor? 

2. What are the undisputed advantages of the motor car in commercial 

service ? 

3. What advantages must be conceded to the horse in commercial 

service ? 

4. Why may the present vogue of the automobile be expected to abate ? 

5. What classes of horses have felt most keenly the competition with 

the motor car? 

6. What classes owe their increased demand in part, at least, to the 

motor car? 

7. How has the adoption of the motor vehicle improved the welfare of 

some horses? 
S. Will the motor vehicle supplant or supplement the horse in service? 
9. What will be its probable effect on the horse breeding industry? 
10. To what extent has the common use of the motor affected the horse 

market ? 



INDEX 



Accessories to bit, 275 

blinds, 279 

bristle burr, 280 

chin strap, 280 

coupling rein, 277 

martingale, 279 

nose band, 280 

overdraw check, 275 

side or bearing rein, 275 

whip, 280 

word, 280 
Age, 141 

dentition of horses, 152 

determination of, 150 

importance of, 151 

mouth at different ages, 154-173 

structure of tooth, 153 
Alfalfa, 240 
American Breeds, 112-132 

native American horses, 133 
American Carriage Horse, government 

stud of, 110 
American Saddle horse, 127 

characteristics of, 130 

color of, 131 

evolution of, 127 

foundation stock of, 128 

gaits of, 131 

influence of Thoroughbred on, 128 

producing mares of, 130 

prominent sires of, 130 

uses of, 131 
Arabian, strains of color of, 73 
Artificial impregnation, 212 
Atavism, 183 
Auctioneers, 299 

responsibility of, 299 
Axles, 288 

bearings, 288 

conical, 288 



Axles, cylindrical, 288 

pitched, 288 
Azaturia, 245 

Bad habits, 267 

Barb, 75 

Barley, 237 

Base of support, effect of rapidity of 

stride on, 8 
Bedding, 250 

corn stover, 251 

peat moss, 251 

purposes of, 250 

sawdust, 251 

shavings, 251 

straw, 251 
Belgian, 90 

American type of, 91 

origin of, 91 

use of sires, 92 
Bitless bridle, 274 
Bits, 271 

classification of, 273 

fit and adjustment of, 275 

structures with which in contact, 
272 

use of, 272 
Blinds or winkers, 279 

open bridle, 279 
Bourbon King, pedigree of, 129 
Bran, 236 

mash, preparation of, 236 
Breeding, 25, 179, 317 

a side issue to general farming, 1 79 

brothers in blood, 184 

community system, 192 

cross-breeding, 182 

dams, 184 

ideals geographically different, 
179 

321 



322 



INDEX 



Breeding, inbreeding, 182 
investment required, 179 
line breeding, 182 
spring or fall foaling, 206 
stud, 192 
top cross, 184 

Breeds of horses, 70 
classification of, 83 
definition of best breed, 70 
inherent qualities of, 71 
study of foundation stock, 71 

Bridles, 295 

classes of, 295 
uses of, 295 

Bristle burr, 280 

British breeds, history of, 93-100 

Brothers in blood, 184 

Canada field peas, 237 
Capacity for work, 221 

daily capacity, 221 

horse power, 221 

pulling capacity, 222 

weight carrying capacity, 222 
Care of feet, 260 

of legs, 260 
Carrots, 242 
Celtic pony, 73 
Centre of gravity, 7 

displacement of, 8 

location of, 7 

stability of, 8 
Cereal hay, 241 
Charles Kent mare, 116 
Chin strap, 286 
Chunk, 51 

Classes, origin of, 299 
Classes of horses, 45 

basis of distinctions, 45 

chart of, 49 

differentiation from types, 49 
Cleveland Bay, 108 
Clipping, 263 

complete clipping, 264 
fashion, 263 
partial clipping, 264 



Clipping, trimming, 263 
Clothing, 265 

bandage, 265 

blanket, 265 

hood, 265 
Clover, 239 
Clydesdale, 94 

characteristics of, 94 

origin of, 94 

quality of bone of, 95 

Scotchman's standard, 94 
Coach Horse, 53 
Cob, 55 
Colic, 245 
Collar, 225 

Dutch or breast, 225 

fit of, 225 
Color, 45 

bay, 46 

black, 47 

black points, 48 

brown, 46 

chestnut, 47 

classification of, 46 

cream, 48 

dun, 48 

gray, 47 

importance of, 46 

leprous spots, 48 

mouse, 48 

odd markings, 48 

piebald, 48 

roan, 48 

skewbald, 48 

tiger spots, 49 

white markings, 48 
Combination horse, 65 
Common stock, origin of, 72 
Community system, 192 

advantages of, 192 
Concentrates, 235 
Condition, 45, 141, 228 
conditioning, 229 
degree and time involved, 229 
fat and element of, 228 
importance of, 228 



INDEX 



323 



Condition, indication of, 228 

the result of, 228 
Conformation, 10, 23, 141 
regions of, 1 1 
study of, 10 
arms, 12 
back, 13 
body, 13 
canons, 12-14 
chest, 13 
croup, 13 
ears, 10 
eyes, 10 
feet, 12-14 
fetlocks, 12-14 
forearms, 12 
forehand, 12 
forehead, 10 
gaskins, 13 
head, 10 
hindquarters, 13 
hips, 13 
hocks, 13 
knees, 12 
loin, 13 
muzzle, 10 
neck, 10 
pasterns, 12-14 
ribs, 13 
shoulders, 12 
stifles, 13 
tail, 13 
thighs, 13 
withers, 12 
Constitution, 141 
Corn, 235 

corn meal, 236 
cracked, 236 
ear corn, 236 
opposition to, 236 
pulled corn, 241 
shelled, 236 
stover, 241 
supplement, 236 
Cottonseed meal, 235, 237 
Coupling. 277 



Coupling rein, 277 
Cow pea hay, 240 
puncher, 284 
Crib bitting, 266 
Cross-breeding, 182 
advantages of, 183 
climatic out-cross, 183 
methods, 182 
purposes, 182 
results, 183 
Cross-firing, 30 
Curb, 149 
bit, 273 
Buxton, 274 
curb chain, 273-275 
elbow, 274 
Liverpool, 274 
operation of, 273 
Pelham, 274 
port in, 274 
principle of, 273 

Dealers, 298 

auctioneers, 299 
conditions of sale, 298, 299 
knowledge of, 298 
private sales, 300 
Denmark, 128 
Dexter, 115 
Direction of leg and form of foot, 24 

relation of deviations in, 25 
Draft breeds, 84-100 
type, 35 
bone, of, 36 
class, 49 
form of, 35 
height of, 50 
quality in, 37 
score card, 142 
temperament, 37 
way of going of, 37 
Dried brewers' grains, 237 
Driving, 282 
reins, 283 
rudiments of, 282 
Dwelling, 30 



324 



INDEX 



Equitation, 269 

control of horses, 269 

horsemanship, 269 

mental limitations, 269 
Equus celticus, 133 
Ewart, Professor, researches of, 72 
Expresser, 52 

Fecundity, 182 
Feeder, 52 
Feeding horses, 231 

an art, 231 

concentrates, 234 

feed, how used, 232 

methods of, 244 

nutritive requirements, 234 

omission of noon, 244 

rations, 233 

regularity of, 244 

research concerning, 231 

roughage, 234 

succulence, 234 

systems of, 232 

time of, 244 

types of feed, 234 
Fences, 193 

"Fine" harness horse, 66 
Flemish horse, 71 
Foal, 202 

bitting of, 210 

care of feet of, 207 

deception concerning powers of, 
210 • 

education of, 209 

feeding, management in, 204 

halter-breaking, 209 

handling of, 208 

impaction in, 202 

importance of education of, 211 

navel infection in, 203 

tying up, 209 

weaning of, 206 
Forelegs, 3 

direction of, 12 

function of, 3 
Forging, 30 



Form, 45, 141, 280 
definition of, 281 
importance of, 281 
French Coach, 103 

as a breeder, 105 
color of, 105 
correct type, 105 
demi sang, 104 
origin of, 103 
types of, 105 
draft breeds, 84 
Ardennaise, 84 
Boulognaise, 84 
Breton, 84 
Nivernais, 84 

Gaines' Denmark, 128 

Gaited saddle horse, requirements 

of, 59 
Gaits, 17 

amble, 18 

canter, 20 

fox trot, 23 

gallop, 19 

jump, 20 

pace, 18 

rack, 18 

running walk, 23 

stepping pace, 23 

traverse, 23 

trot, 17 

walk, 17 
General appearance, 141 
George Wilkes, 115 

sons of, 116 
German Coach, 106 
color of, 106 
influence of, 107 
origin of, 106 
type of, 106 
Gloves, 283 

fit of, 283 

use of, 283 
Grade, 184 

grade stallion, 190 

grading up, 184 



INDEX 



325 



Grade, high, 184 
Green Mountain Maid, 119 
Grooming, 259 
stallion, 198 

Hack, 59 

park, 59 

road, 59 
Hackney, 101 

color of, 102 

derivation of name, 101 

description of, 102 

history of, 101 

ponies, 137 

breeding of, 137 
show ponies, 137 

popularity of, 102 

registration of, 103 
Hals, 117 

Halter pulling, 267 
Hambletonian 10, 114 

dam of, 116 

sons of, 116 
Hands, 270, 271 

position of, 282 
Harness, 293 

classes of, 293 
Hay, 246 

chaffing of, 246 

cutting of, 246 

moistening of, 246 
Heavy harness breeds, 101-112 
division, 52 
score card, 144 
suggestiveness of term, 52 
Height, 45 
Heredity, 25, 180 

germ plasm, 181 

law of ancestral inheritance, 180 

transmission from ancestors 
through parents, 181 
High School horse, 285 
Hind legs, 3 

direction of, 14 

function of, 3 
History of horse in service, 219 



History of horse in the feral state, 220 

man's obligation to, 220 

under domestication, 221 
Hoof dressings, 263 
Horse in service, 221 

application of power, 226 

capacity for work, 221 

economic efficiency of, 221 

factors determining severity of, 
222 

work, 222 
Horsemanship, 280 

driving, 282 

form, 280 

riding, 282 
Horse's mechanical structure, 3 
How to buy a horse, 301 

buying green horses, 302 

company plan for buying stal- 
lion, 303 

employment of veterinarian, 302 

go-betweens, 302 
Hunter, 61 

classification of, 64 

requirements of, 61 

size of, 62 
Hybridization, 183 

bovine hybrids, 183 

equine hybrids, 183 

Inbreeding, 182 

advantages of, 182 

methods, 182 

purposes, 182 

results, 182 
Intelligence, 175 
Interfering, 30 

Jack, 312 

distinctions in type, 312 

imported jacks, 313 

native jacks, 313 

the mare for mule breeding, 313 

type most desired, 312 
Judging horses, 139 

accuracy and rapidity in, 139 



326 



INDEX 



Judging, features to consider in, 141 

law of correlation, 140 

system in, 140 

what is involved in, 139 
Jumper, 64 
Justin Morgan, 123 

breeding of, 123 

description of, 125 

sons of, 124 

Kicking, 266 

Legumes, 239 
Light harness division, 56 
horse, 57 

pacers, 57 

road horses, 57 

score card, 145 

speed horses, 57 

trotters, 57 
Line breeding, 182 

advantages of, 182 

methods, 182 

purposes, 182 

results, 182 
Linseed or oil meal, 237 
Locomotion, 4 
Logger, 50 

Mambrino, 117 

Manners, 45 

Mare, 191 

after foaling, 202 
artificial impregnation, 212 
attitude of owners, 191 
breeding fillies, 204 
brood mare, 198 
care and management of, 199 
exercise and work, 201 
extremes of condition in, 201 
' feeding of, 199-202 
foaling time, 199 
ideal conditions for, 200 
importance of, 198 
next breeding, 204 
patronage by owners, 191 
potency of, 212 



Mare, relative influence of, 198 

selection of, 198 

sterility or barrenness, 212 
Market classes, 299 
origin of, 299 
Markets, 297 

auctioneers, 299 

classes, 299 

consumers, 297 

dealers, 298 

prices, 298 

producer, 297 

sales, 299 

sales ring warranty, 300 

second-hand horses, 298 

sex, importance of, 299 

values determined by, 297 
Martingale, 279 

ring, 279 

standing, 279 
Mechanical analogy, 5 

appliances, 29 
bit, 29 

going surface, 29 
hopples, 29 
shoes, 29 
weight, 29 
Messenger, 114 
Middlings, 237 
Molasses, 238 
"Monday Morning Disease," 245 

azaturia, 245 
Mongrel or scrub, 184 
Morgan, 122 

as a breed, 122 

blood of, in other breeds, 124 

description of, 125 

government breeding of, 126 
Morgan Horse Club, 126 
Motor, 314 

advantages of, 314 

advantages of horse over, 315 

age, 315 

breeding horses, influence of 
motor on, 317 

cost of feed and gasoline, 315 



INDEX 



327 



Motor, demand for saddle horses, 3 1 7 
draft horses, influence of motor 

on, 319 
importance of, 314 
other factors influencing demand 

for horses, 314 
prices of horses, influence of 

motor on, 318 
supplementing horse in sendee, 

316 
vogue of motor, 315 
Mouths, 270, 271 
Mule, 309 

advantages of, 310 
breeding of, 309 
classes of, 309 
importance of, 309 
mare mules, 312 
Muscular action, 6 

Nick, 183 
Nose band, 280 

Oat straw, 241 
Oats, 235 

crushed, 245 
oat straw, 241 
sheaf oats, 241 
Oriental horse, 72 

influence of, 76 
Orloff, 108 

Overdraw check, 275 
abuse of, 275 
use of, 275 

Paddling, 30 
Park horse, 53 
Pasture, 242 
Pastures, 192 

limestone in, 192 
Pedigree, 181 

certificate, value of, 185 

duplicate, 185 

eligibility for registration, 185 

short pedigree, 190 

transfers, 184 

value of registration, 184 



Percheron, 84 

distinctive features of, 88 

early service, 85 

foundation of, 85 

importance of, 90 

modification of type of, 85 
Pilots, 117 
Pointing, 30 
Polo ponies, 69 

Ponies over 11-2, not exceeding 14-2, 
69 

under 46 inches, 69 
Pony breeds, 133-139 

division, 66 

classification of, 66 
Pounding, 30 
Prepotency, 182 

definition of, 182 

determined by, 182 
Principles of breeding, 180 

definition of breeding, 180 

heredity, 180 

law of ancestral inheritance, 180 

variation, 180 
Private sales, 300 
Pulled corn, 241 
Pure-bred, 184-185, 189 

Quality, 45, 111 

Race horse, 57 

runner, 59 

hind leg of, 59 
Raising horses, 213 
cost of, 213 
Ration, 245 

amount of, 245 

character of, 245 

preparation of, 245 

sudden changes in, 246 

variety in, 246 
Reins, 282 

fingering of, 282 

grip of, 282 

take-up of, 282 
Reversion, 183 



328 



INDEX 



Rex McDonald, pedigree of, 129 
Ridgeway, Professor, researches of, 72 
Riding, 283 

curb rein, 283 

holding reins, 283 

open unbuckled reins, 284 

plain snaffle bridle, 283 

single curb rein, 284 

snaffle rein, 283 
Rolling, 30 
Roughage, 239 
Runabout, 54 
Rye, 238 

Saddle, 293 

cow or Texas saddle, 295 

seat, 295 
early use of, 293 

types of, 293 
English saddle, 293 

seat, 293 
horse, 317 
division, 57 

classification of, 60 
height, 60 
score card, 147 
weight, 60 
McClellan saddle, 294 

seat, 294 
type, 42 
form of, 44 
performance of, 44 
way of going of, 44 
weight carrying, 43 
Sales ring warranty, 300 
at the halter, 300 
serviceably sound, 300 
sound, 300 

sound to wind and work, 300 
with all faults, 300 
worker only, 300 
Salt, 243 

necessity for, 243 
provision of, 244 
Scalping, 30 
Schooling, 26 



Schooling, bitting of, 210 
education of foal, 209 
halter breaking, 209 
handling, 2S 
handling of foal, 20S 
importance of education of foal, 
211 
Schwyter, Dr. H., 13 
Score card, 141 

chief use of, 142 
draft score card, 142 
heavy harness score card, 144 
light harness score card, 145 
saddle horse score card, 147 
scoring, 142 
Scrub or mongrel, 184 
Sheaf oats, 241 
Shetlands, 133 

chief asset of, 134 
color of, 135 
discrimination in, 135 
height of, 135 
types of, 133 
Shire, 96 

characteristics of, 96 
crosses of, 9S 
Shoeing, 261 

hoof dressings, 263 

hot fitting, 262 

physiological movements of the 

foot, 261 
proper shoeing, 262 
removal of horn, 262 
Shorts, 237 
Show type, 41 

form of, 41 
quality of, 42 
substance of, 41 
temperament of, 42 
way of going of, 42 
Showing, 296 
in hand, 296 
in harness, 296 
rules, 297 
under saddle, 296 
Shows, 296 



INDEX 



329 



Shows, classes of, 296 

fitting for, 296 

horses for, 296 

purposes of, 296 
Side bone, 149 
Side or bearing rein, 275 

use of, 277 
Silage, 242 
Snaffle, 273 

jointed, 273 

four-ring, 273 
Soiling crops, 242 
Soundness, 141 

definition of, 148 

durability of equine machine, 149 

hereditary unsoundness, 189 

rejection for unsoundness, 150 

significance of, 14S 
Soy bean hay, 240 
Spavin, 149 
Special bits, 274 
Speed type, 39 

form of, 39 
quality of, 40 
runner, 40 
temperament of, 40 
trotter and pacer, 40 
way of going of, 40 
Speedy cutting, 30 
Springs, 290 

first use of, 291 
Stable management, 259 

care of feet, 261 

care of legs, 260 

clipping, 263 

clothing, 265 

grooming, 259 

hoof dressings, 263 

physiological movements of the 
foot, 261 

shoeing, 261 

washing, 259 
Stables, 247 

arrangement of, 247 

assignment of stalls, 258 

classes of, 247 



Stables, construction, 247 
design of, 247 
dimensions of, 248 
doors, 253 
interior of, 256 
location of, 247 
passageways, 253 
quarters for breeding stock, 192 
vices, 266 

wagon and harness rooms, 256 
windows, 253 
Stale bread, 239 
Stallion, 191 

average of merit, 191 

care and management of, 196 

exercise of, 197 

feeding of, 196 

grooming, 198 

legislation, 188 

French system, 188 

ideals in laws, 189 

importance of, 188 

objects of, 189 

stallion license laws, 188 

suitable laws, 190 
potency of, 212 
regulation of sendee, 197 
selection of, 194 
service of, 196 
service of colts, 196 
sterility, 211 
testing of, 194 
the draft stallion, 197 
the Thoroughbred stallion, 19 
the trotting stallion, 197 
Stalls, 248 

bales, 249 
bedding, 250 
classes of, 248 
dimensions of, 248 
drainage of, 250 
feed boxes, 252 
floors of, 249 
mangers, 252 
partitions of, 248 
ties, 252 



330 



INDEX 



Standardbred, 113 

American Trotting Registry As- 
sociation, 188 

demand for, 119 

eligibility rules for registration 
of, 121 

foundation blood lines of, 117 

notable individuals, 114-120 

origin of, 114 

pacing standard, 121 

significance of name, 113 

speed records of, 122 

standard by performance, 188 

trotting standard, 121 

versatility of, 120 
Sterility, 211 

artificial impregnation, 212 
potency of, 212 

barrenness in mares, 212 

breeding remedies, 213 

classification of, 211 

cryptorchids, 212 

importance of, 211 

in stallion, 212 
potency of, 212 
Straw, 246 

chaffing of, 246 

cutting of, 246 

moistening of, 246 
Stride, 4 

features of, 17 

phases of, 5 
Stud, 192 

definition of, 192 

equipment of, 192 

stud horse, 192 

the breeding stud, 192 - 
Substance, 45, 141 
Succulence, 241 
Suffolk, 98 

distinguishing characters of, 98 

distribution of, 99 

origin of, 98 

Tail rubbing, 267 
Temperament, 45 



Temperament and disposition, 141 
Thoroughbred, 72 

"blood" significance of, 80 

description of, 7S 

early racing, 77 

foundation of, 77 

importance of, 79 

introduction into America, 78 

origin of, 72-76 

records of, 81 

relation to other breeds, 79 

significance of term, 76 
Timothy, 239 
Transportation, 304 

car fit, 308 

care in transit, 306 

express, 304 

express car for, 304 

freight, 304 

freight tariffs, 305 

injury during, 307 

preparation of car, 305 

preparation of horses for, 307 

shipping fever, 307 

stock cars for, 304 
Trappy, 30 
Trooper, 284 
Type, 23 

definition of, 35 
Turk, 75 

Unsoundness, 189 

demonstration of, 190 
rejection for, 150 
unsound stallions, 190 

Variation, 180 
Vehicle, 286 

American road wagon, 292 

axles, 288 

classification of, 292 

construction of, 291 

evolution of, 2S6 

introduction of, 290 

primitive, 286 

progress of, 290 



INDEX 



331 



Vehicle, springs, 290 

superior woods for, 291 

wheeled, 286 

wheels, 286 
Ventilation, 254 

calculation of requirements of , 255 

cubic air space, 255 

fresh air requirements, 254 

importance for horses, 255 

King system, 254 
Vices, 266 

Walk-trot-canter horse, 59 

saddle bred, 60 

Thoroughbred, 60 

trot of, 59 
Washing, 259 
Water, 242 

allowance of, 242 

necessity for, 242 

public watering troughs, 243 

time to water, 243 
Way of going, 17, 141 

action, 17 

defects and peculiarities in, 30 

factors determining, 23 

pace, 17 
Weaning, 266 
Weight, 45 
Welsh, 135 

classification of, 136 

colors of, 136 

size of, 136 

type of, 135 

use of, 137 
Wheat, 238 



Wheels, 286 

dishing of, 289 

experiments of Morin, 287 

resilience of, 287 J 

rubber, 287-291 

size of, 223 

staggered spokes, 290 

tire, width of, 223, 286 
Whip, 280 
Winding, 30 
Wind sucking, 266 
Windows, 253 

as inlets, 253 
Winging, 30 
Winkers, 279 
Word, 280 
Work, 222 

application of power, 226 

attachment of traces to hames, 
224 

collar, fit of, 225 

distribution of load, 223 

draft of load, 222 

duration of period of, 226 

factors determining, 222 

friction of box on axle, 223 

gravity, 222 

horse division, 49 

line of draft, 224 

rate at which load is moved, 225 

road bed, 222 

severity of, 222 

size of wheel, 223 

width of tire, 223 

Yorkshire Coach, 108 



- -s^^i 




